About
Bash is an sh-compatible shell. It is intended to conform to the IEEE POSIX P1003.2/ISO 9945.2 Shell and Tools standard.
Bash is the shell, or command language interpreter, that will appear in the GNU operating system.
Most sh scripts can be run by Bash without modification.
Startup files
The following paragraphs describe how bash executes its startup files.
If any of the files exist but cannot be read, bash reports an error.
Tildes are expanded in file names as described below under Tilde Expansion in the EXPANSION section.
Interactive Non Login shell
When an interactive shell that is not a login shell is started, bash reads and executes commands from ~/.bashrc, if that file exists.
This may be inhibited by using the –norc option. The –rcfile file option will force bash to read and execute commands from file instead of ~/.bashrc.
Non Interactive Shell
When bash is started non-interactively, to run a shell script, for example, it looks for the variable BASH_ENV in the environment, expands its value if it appears there, and uses the expanded value as the name of a file to read and execute. Bash behaves as if the following command were executed:
if [ -n "$BASH_ENV" ]; then . "$BASH_ENV"; fi
but the value of the PATH variable is not used to search for the file name.
Sh
If bash is invoked with the name sh, it tries to mimic the startup behavior of historical versions of sh as closely as possible, while conforming to the POSIX standard as well. When invoked as an interactive login shell, or a non-interactive shell with the –login option, it first attempts to read and execute commands in the following order from:
- /etc/profile and
- ~/.profile.
The –noprofile option may be used to inhibit this behavior. When invoked as an interactive shell with the name sh, bash looks for the variable ENV, expands its value if it is defined, and uses the expanded value as the name of a file to read and execute. Since a shell invoked as sh does not attempt to read and execute commands from any other startup files, the –rcfile option has no effect. A non-interactive shell invoked with the name sh does not attempt to read any other startup files. When invoked as sh, bash enters posix mode after the startup files are read.
Posix Mode
When bash is started in posix mode, as with the –posix command line option, it follows the POSIX standard for startup files. In this mode, interactive shells expand the ENV variable and commands are read and executed from the file whose name is the expanded value. No other startup files are read.
Run by the remote shell daemon (rshd)
Bash attempts to determine when it is being run by the remote shell daemon, usually rshd. If bash determines it is being run by rshd, it reads and executes commands from ~/.bashrc, if that file exists and is readable.
It will not do this if invoked as sh. The –norc option may be used to inhibit this behavior, and the –rcfile option may be used to force another file to be read, but rshd does not generally invoke the shell with those options or allow them to be specified.
Run with group id <> user id
If the shell is started with the effective user (group) id not equal to the real user (group) id, and the -p option is not supplied, no startup files are read, shell functions are not inherited from the environment, the SHELLOPTS variable, if it appears in the environment, is ignored, and the effective user id is set to the real user id. If the -p option is supplied at invocation, the startup behavior is the same, but the effective user id is not reset.
To continue
Still to be done: The shell_variable must be set to their structure.
Command Substitution
Command substitution allows the output of a command to replace the com-
mand name. There are two forms:
$(command)
or
‘command‘
Bash performs the expansion by executing command and replacing the com-
mand substitution with the standard output of the command, with any
trailing newlines deleted. Embedded newlines are not deleted, but they
may be removed during word splitting. The command substitution $(cat
file) can be replaced by the equivalent but faster $(< file).
When the old-style backquote form of substitution is used, backslash
retains its literal meaning except when followed by $, ‘, or \. The
first backquote not preceded by a backslash terminates the command sub-
stitution. When using the $(command) form, all characters between the
parentheses make up the command; none are treated specially.
Command substitutions may be nested. To nest when using the backquoted
form, escape the inner backquotes with backslashes.
If the substitution appears within double quotes, word splitting and
pathname expansion are not performed on the results.
Arithmetic Expansion
Arithmetic expansion allows the evaluation of an arithmetic expression
and the substitution of the result. The format for arithmetic expan-
sion is:
$((expression))
The expression is treated as if it were within double quotes, but a
double quote inside the parentheses is not treated specially. All
tokens in the expression undergo parameter expansion, string expansion,
command substitution, and quote removal. Arithmetic expansions may be
nested.
The evaluation is performed according to the rules listed below under
ARITHMETIC EVALUATION. If expression is invalid, bash prints a message
indicating failure and no substitution occurs.
Process Substitution
Process substitution is supported on systems that support named pipes
(FIFOs) or the /dev/fd method of naming open files. It takes the form
of <(list) or >(list). The process list is run with its input or out-
put connected to a FIFO or some file in /dev/fd. The name of this file
is passed as an argument to the current command as the result of the
expansion. If the >(list) form is used, writing to the file will pro-
vide input for list. If the <(list) form is used, the file passed as
an argument should be read to obtain the output of list.
When available, process substitution is performed simultaneously with
parameter and variable expansion, command substitution, and arithmetic
expansion.
Pathname Expansion
After word splitting, unless the -f option has been set, bash scans
each word for the characters *, ?, and [. If one of these characters
appears, then the word is regarded as a pattern, and replaced with an
alphabetically sorted list of file names matching the pattern. If no
matching file names are found, and the shell option nullglob is dis-
abled, the word is left unchanged. If the nullglob option is set, and
no matches are found, the word is removed. If the failglob shell
option is set, and no matches are found, an error message is printed
and the command is not executed. If the shell option nocaseglob is
enabled, the match is performed without regard to the case of alpha-
betic characters. When a pattern is used for pathname expansion, the
character ‘‘.’’ at the start of a name or immediately following a
slash must be matched explicitly, unless the shell option dotglob is
set. When matching a pathname, the slash character must always be
matched explicitly. In other cases, the ‘‘.’’ character is not
treated specially. See the description of shopt below under SHELL
BUILTIN COMMANDS for a description of the nocaseglob, nullglob, fail-
glob, and dotglob shell options.
The GLOBIGNORE shell variable may be used to restrict the set of file
names matching a pattern. If GLOBIGNORE is set, each matching file
name that also matches one of the patterns in GLOBIGNORE is removed
from the list of matches. The file names ‘‘.’’ and ‘‘..’’ are always
ignored when GLOBIGNORE is set and not null. However, setting GLOBIG-
NORE to a non-null value has the effect of enabling the dotglob shell
option, so all other file names beginning with a ‘‘.’’ will match. To
get the old behavior of ignoring file names beginning with a ‘‘.’’,
make ‘‘.*’’ one of the patterns in GLOBIGNORE. The dotglob option is
disabled when GLOBIGNORE is unset.
Pattern Matching
Any character that appears in a pattern, other than the special pattern
characters described below, matches itself. The NUL character may not
occur in a pattern. A backslash escapes the following character; the
escaping backslash is discarded when matching. The special pattern
characters must be quoted if they are to be matched literally.
The special pattern characters have the following meanings:
- Matches any string, including the null string.
? Matches any single character.
[...] Matches any one of the enclosed characters. A pair of charac-
ters separated by a hyphen denotes a range expression; any char-
acter that sorts between those two characters, inclusive, using
the current locale’s collating sequence and character set, is
matched. If the first character following the [ is a ! or a ^
then any character not enclosed is matched. The sorting order
of characters in range expressions is determined by the current
locale and the value of the LC_COLLATE shell variable, if set.
A - may be matched by including it as the first or last charac-
ter in the set. A ] may be matched by including it as the first
character in the set.
Within [ and ], character classes can be specified using the
syntax [:class:], where class is one of the following classes
defined in the POSIX standard:
alnum alpha ascii blank cntrl digit graph lower print punct
space upper word xdigit
A character class matches any character belonging to that class.
The word character class matches letters, digits, and the char-
acter _.
Within [ and ], an equivalence class can be specified using the
syntax [=c=], which matches all characters with the same colla-
tion weight (as defined by the current locale) as the character
c.
Within [ and ], the syntax [.symbol.] matches the collating sym-
bol symbol.
If the extglob shell option is enabled using the shopt builtin, several
extended pattern matching operators are recognized. In the following
description, a pattern-list is a list of one or more patterns separated
by a |. Composite patterns may be formed using one or more of the fol-
lowing sub-patterns:
?(pattern-list)
Matches zero or one occurrence of the given patterns
*(pattern-list)
Matches zero or more occurrences of the given patterns
+(pattern-list)
Matches one or more occurrences of the given patterns
@(pattern-list)
Matches one of the given patterns
!(pattern-list)
Matches anything except one of the given patterns
Quote Removal
After the preceding expansions, all unquoted occurrences of the charac-
ters \, ', and " that did not result from one of the above expansions
are removed.
REDIRECTION
Before a command is executed, its input and output may be redirected
using a special notation interpreted by the shell. Redirection may
also be used to open and close files for the current shell execution
environment. The following redirection operators may precede or appear
anywhere within a simple command or may follow a command. Redirections
are processed in the order they appear, from left to right.
In the following descriptions, if the file descriptor number is omit-
ted, and the first character of the redirection operator is <, the
redirection refers to the standard input (file descriptor 0). If the
first character of the redirection operator is >, the redirection
refers to the standard output (file descriptor 1).
The word following the redirection operator in the following descrip-
tions, unless otherwise noted, is subjected to brace expansion, tilde
expansion, parameter expansion, command substitution, arithmetic expan-
sion, quote removal, pathname expansion, and word splitting. If it
expands to more than one word, bash reports an error.
Note that the order of redirections is significant. For example, the
command
ls > dirlist 2>&1
directs both standard output and standard error to the file dirlist,
while the command
ls 2>&1 > dirlist
directs only the standard output to file dirlist, because the standard
error was duplicated as standard output before the standard output was
redirected to dirlist.
Bash handles several filenames specially when they are used in redirec-
tions, as described in the following table:
/dev/fd/fd
If fd is a valid integer, file descriptor fd is dupli-
cated.
/dev/stdin
File descriptor 0 is duplicated.
/dev/stdout
File descriptor 1 is duplicated.
/dev/stderr
File descriptor 2 is duplicated.
/dev/tcp/host/port
If host is a valid hostname or Internet address, and port
is an integer port number or service name, bash attempts
to open a TCP connection to the corresponding socket.
/dev/udp/host/port
If host is a valid hostname or Internet address, and port
is an integer port number or service name, bash attempts
to open a UDP connection to the corresponding socket.
A failure to open or create a file causes the redirection to fail.
Redirections using file descriptors greater than 9 should be used with
care, as they may conflict with file descriptors the shell uses inter-
nally.
Redirecting Input
Redirection of input causes the file whose name results from the expan-
sion of word to be opened for reading on file descriptor n, or the
standard input (file descriptor 0) if n is not specified.
The general format for redirecting input is:
[n]<word
Redirecting Output
Redirection of output causes the file whose name results from the
expansion of word to be opened for writing on file descriptor n, or the
standard output (file descriptor 1) if n is not specified. If the file
does not exist it is created; if it does exist it is truncated to zero
size.
The general format for redirecting output is:
[n]>word
If the redirection operator is >, and the noclobber option to the set
builtin has been enabled, the redirection will fail if the file whose
name results from the expansion of word exists and is a regular file.
If the redirection operator is >|, or the redirection operator is > and
the noclobber option to the set builtin command is not enabled, the
redirection is attempted even if the file named by word exists.
Appending Redirected Output
Redirection of output in this fashion causes the file whose name
results from the expansion of word to be opened for appending on file
descriptor n, or the standard output (file descriptor 1) if n is not
specified. If the file does not exist it is created.
The general format for appending output is:
[n]>>word
Redirecting Standard Output and Standard Error
Bash allows both the standard output (file descriptor 1) and the stan-
dard error output (file descriptor 2) to be redirected to the file
whose name is the expansion of word with this construct.
There are two formats for redirecting standard output and standard
error:
&>word
and
>&word
Of the two forms, the first is preferred. This is semantically equiva-
lent to
>word 2>&1
Here Strings
A variant of here documents, the format is:
<<<word
The word is expanded and supplied to the command on its standard input.
Duplicating File Descriptors
The redirection operator
[n]<&word
is used to duplicate input file descriptors. If word expands to one or
more digits, the file descriptor denoted by n is made to be a copy of
that file descriptor. If the digits in word do not specify a file
descriptor open for input, a redirection error occurs. If word evalu-
ates to -, file descriptor n is closed. If n is not specified, the
standard input (file descriptor 0) is used.
The operator
[n]>&word
is used similarly to duplicate output file descriptors. If n is not
specified, the standard output (file descriptor 1) is used. If the
digits in word do not specify a file descriptor open for output, a
redirection error occurs. As a special case, if n is omitted, and word
does not expand to one or more digits, the standard output and standard
error are redirected as described previously.
Moving File Descriptors
The redirection operator
[n]<&digit-
moves the file descriptor digit to file descriptor n, or the standard
input (file descriptor 0) if n is not specified. digit is closed after
being duplicated to n.
Similarly, the redirection operator
[n]>&digit-
moves the file descriptor digit to file descriptor n, or the standard
output (file descriptor 1) if n is not specified.
Opening File Descriptors for Reading and Writing
The redirection operator
[n]<>word
causes the file whose name is the expansion of word to be opened for
both reading and writing on file descriptor n, or on file descriptor 0
if n is not specified. If the file does not exist, it is created.
ARITHMETIC EVALUATION
The shell allows arithmetic expressions to be evaluated, under certain
circumstances (see the let and declare builtin commands and Arithmetic
Expansion). Evaluation is done in fixed-width integers with no check
for overflow, though division by 0 is trapped and flagged as an error.
The operators and their precedence, associativity, and values are the
same as in the C language. The following list of operators is grouped
into levels of equal-precedence operators. The levels are listed in
order of decreasing precedence.
id++ id--
variable post-increment and post-decrement
++id --id
variable pre-increment and pre-decrement
- + unary minus and plus
! ~ logical and bitwise negation
** exponentiation
* / % multiplication, division, remainder
+ - addition, subtraction
<< >> left and right bitwise shifts
<= >= < >
comparison
== != equality and inequality
& bitwise AND
^ bitwise exclusive OR
| bitwise OR
&& logical AND
|| logical OR
expr?expr:expr
conditional operator
= *= /= %= += -= <<= >>= &= ^= |=
assignment
expr1 , expr2
comma
Shell variables are allowed as operands; parameter expansion is per-
formed before the expression is evaluated. Within an expression, shell
variables may also be referenced by name without using the parameter
expansion syntax. A shell variable that is null or unset evaluates to
0 when referenced by name without using the parameter expansion syntax.
The value of a variable is evaluated as an arithmetic expression when
it is referenced, or when a variable which has been given the integer
attribute using declare -i is assigned a value. A null value evaluates
to 0. A shell variable need not have its integer attribute turned on
to be used in an expression.
Constants with a leading 0 are interpreted as octal numbers. A leading
0x or 0X denotes hexadecimal. Otherwise, numbers take the form
[base#]n, where base is a decimal number between 2 and 64 representing
the arithmetic base, and n is a number in that base. If base# is omit-
ted, then base 10 is used. The digits greater than 9 are represented
by the lowercase letters, the uppercase letters, @, and _, in that
order. If base is less than or equal to 36, lowercase and uppercase
letters may be used interchangeably to represent numbers between 10 and
35.
Operators are evaluated in order of precedence. Sub-expressions in
parentheses are evaluated first and may override the precedence rules
above.
CONDITIONAL EXPRESSIONS
Conditional expressions are used by the [[ compound command and the
test and [ builtin commands to test file attributes and perform string
and arithmetic comparisons. Expressions are formed from the following
unary or binary primaries. If any file argument to one of the pri-
maries is of the form /dev/fd/n, then file descriptor n is checked. If
the file argument to one of the primaries is one of /dev/stdin,
/dev/stdout, or /dev/stderr, file descriptor 0, 1, or 2, respectively,
is checked.
Unless otherwise specified, primaries that operate on files follow sym-
bolic links and operate on the target of the link, rather than the link
itself.
- a file
True if file exists.
- b file
True if file exists and is a block special file.
- c file
True if file exists and is a character special file.
- d file
True if file exists and is a directory.
- e file
True if file exists.
- f file
True if file exists and is a regular file.
- g file
True if file exists and is set-group-id.
- h file
True if file exists and is a symbolic link.
- k file
True if file exists and its ‘‘sticky’’ bit is set.
- p file
True if file exists and is a named pipe (FIFO).
- r file
True if file exists and is readable.
- s file
True if file exists and has a size greater than zero.
- t fd True if file descriptor fd is open and refers to a terminal.
- u file
True if file exists and its set-user-id bit is set.
- w file
True if file exists and is writable.
- x file
True if file exists and is executable.
- O file
True if file exists and is owned by the effective user id.
- G file
True if file exists and is owned by the effective group id.
- L file
True if file exists and is a symbolic link.
- S file
True if file exists and is a socket.
- N file
True if file exists and has been modified since it was last
read.
file1 -nt file2
True if file1 is newer (according to modification date) than
file2, or if file1 exists and file2 does not.
file1 -ot file2
True if file1 is older than file2, or if file2 exists and file1
does not.
file1 -ef file2
True if file1 and file2 refer to the same device and inode num-
bers.
-o optname
True if shell option optname is enabled. See the list of
options under the description of the -o option to the set
builtin below.
-z string
True if the length of string is zero.
string
-n string
True if the length of string is non-zero.
string1 == string2
True if the strings are equal. = may be used in place of == for
strict POSIX compliance.
string1 != string2
True if the strings are not equal.
string1 < string2
True if string1 sorts before string2 lexicographically in the
current locale.
string1 > string2
True if string1 sorts after string2 lexicographically in the
current locale.
arg1 OP arg2
OP is one of -eq, -ne, -lt, -le, -gt, or -ge. These arithmetic
binary operators return true if arg1 is equal to, not equal to,
less than, less than or equal to, greater than, or greater than
or equal to arg2, respectively. Arg1 and arg2 may be positive
or negative integers.
SIMPLE COMMAND EXPANSION
When a simple command is executed, the shell performs the following
expansions, assignments, and redirections, from left to right.
1. The words that the parser has marked as variable assignments
(those preceding the command name) and redirections are saved
for later processing.
2. The words that are not variable assignments or redirections are
expanded. If any words remain after expansion, the first word
is taken to be the name of the command and the remaining words
are the arguments.
3. Redirections are performed as described above under REDIRECTION.
4. The text after the = in each variable assignment undergoes tilde
expansion, parameter expansion, command substitution, arithmetic
expansion, and quote removal before being assigned to the vari-
able.
If no command name results, the variable assignments affect the current
shell environment. Otherwise, the variables are added to the environ-
ment of the executed command and do not affect the current shell envi-
ronment. If any of the assignments attempts to assign a value to a
readonly variable, an error occurs, and the command exits with a non-
zero status.
If no command name results, redirections are performed, but do not
affect the current shell environment. A redirection error causes the
command to exit with a non-zero status.
If there is a command name left after expansion, execution proceeds as
described below. Otherwise, the command exits. If one of the expan-
sions contained a command substitution, the exit status of the command
is the exit status of the last command substitution performed. If
there were no command substitutions, the command exits with a status of
zero.
COMMAND EXECUTION
After a command has been split into words, if it results in a simple
command and an optional list of arguments, the following actions are
taken.
If the command name contains no slashes, the shell attempts to locate
it. If there exists a shell function by that name, that function is
invoked as described above in FUNCTIONS. If the name does not match a
function, the shell searches for it in the list of shell builtins. If
a match is found, that builtin is invoked.
If the name is neither a shell function nor a builtin, and contains no
slashes, bash searches each element of the PATH for a directory con-
taining an executable file by that name. Bash uses a hash table to
remember the full pathnames of executable files (see hash under SHELL
BUILTIN COMMANDS below). A full search of the directories in PATH is
performed only if the command is not found in the hash table. If the
search is unsuccessful, the shell prints an error message and returns
an exit status of 127.
If the search is successful, or if the command name contains one or
more slashes, the shell executes the named program in a separate execu-
tion environment. Argument 0 is set to the name given, and the remain-
ing arguments to the command are set to the arguments given, if any.
If this execution fails because the file is not in executable format,
and the file is not a directory, it is assumed to be a shell script, a
file containing shell commands. A subshell is spawned to execute it.
This subshell reinitializes itself, so that the effect is as if a new
shell had been invoked to handle the script, with the exception that
the locations of commands remembered by the parent (see hash below
under SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS) are retained by the child.
If the program is a file beginning with #!, the remainder of the first
line specifies an interpreter for the program. The shell executes the
specified interpreter on operating systems that do not handle this exe-
cutable format themselves. The arguments to the interpreter consist of
a single optional argument following the interpreter name on the first
line of the program, followed by the name of the program, followed by
the command arguments, if any.
COMMAND EXECUTION ENVIRONMENT
The shell has an execution environment, which consists of the follow-
ing:
· open files inherited by the shell at invocation, as modified by
redirections supplied to the exec builtin
· the current working directory as set by cd, pushd, or popd, or
inherited by the shell at invocation
· the file creation mode mask as set by umask or inherited from
the shell’s parent
· current traps set by trap
· shell parameters that are set by variable assignment or with set
or inherited from the shell’s parent in the environment
· shell functions defined during execution or inherited from the
shell’s parent in the environment
· options enabled at invocation (either by default or with com-
mand-line arguments) or by set
· options enabled by shopt
· shell aliases defined with alias
· various process IDs, including those of background jobs, the
value of $$, and the value of $PPID
When a simple command other than a builtin or shell function is to be
executed, it is invoked in a separate execution environment that con-
sists of the following. Unless otherwise noted, the values are inher-
ited from the shell.
· the shell’s open files, plus any modifications and additions
specified by redirections to the command
· the current working directory
· the file creation mode mask
· shell variables and functions marked for export, along with
variables exported for the command, passed in the environment
· traps caught by the shell are reset to the values inherited from
the shell’s parent, and traps ignored by the shell are ignored
A command invoked in this separate environment cannot affect the
shell’s execution environment.
Command substitution, commands grouped with parentheses, and asyn-
chronous commands are invoked in a subshell environment that is a
duplicate of the shell environment, except that traps caught by the
shell are reset to the values that the shell inherited from its parent
at invocation. Builtin commands that are invoked as part of a pipeline
are also executed in a subshell environment. Changes made to the sub-
shell environment cannot affect the shell’s execution environment.
If a command is followed by a & and job control is not active, the
default standard input for the command is the empty file /dev/null.
Otherwise, the invoked command inherits the file descriptors of the
calling shell as modified by redirections.
ENVIRONMENT
When a program is invoked it is given an array of strings called the
environment. This is a list of name-value pairs, of the form
name=value.
The shell provides several ways to manipulate the environment. On
invocation, the shell scans its own environment and creates a parameter
for each name found, automatically marking it for export to child pro-
cesses. Executed commands inherit the environment. The export and
declare -x commands allow parameters and functions to be added to and
deleted from the environment. If the value of a parameter in the envi-
ronment is modified, the new value becomes part of the environment,
replacing the old. The environment inherited by any executed command
consists of the shell’s initial environment, whose values may be modi-
fied in the shell, less any pairs removed by the unset command, plus
any additions via the export and declare -x commands.
The environment for any simple command or function may be augmented
temporarily by prefixing it with parameter assignments, as described
above in PARAMETERS. These assignment statements affect only the envi-
ronment seen by that command.
If the -k option is set (see the set builtin command below), then all
parameter assignments are placed in the environment for a command, not
just those that precede the command name.
When bash invokes an external command, the variable _ is set to the
full file name of the command and passed to that command in its envi-
ronment.
EXIT STATUS
For the shell’s purposes, a command which exits with a zero exit status
has succeeded. An exit status of zero indicates success. A non-zero
exit status indicates failure. When a command terminates on a fatal
signal N, bash uses the value of 128+N as the exit status.
If a command is not found, the child process created to execute it
returns a status of 127. If a command is found but is not executable,
the return status is 126.
If a command fails because of an error during expansion or redirection,
the exit status is greater than zero.
Shell builtin commands return a status of 0 (true) if successful, and
non-zero (false) if an error occurs while they execute. All builtins
return an exit status of 2 to indicate incorrect usage.
Bash itself returns the exit status of the last command executed,
unless a syntax error occurs, in which case it exits with a non-zero
value. See also the exit builtin command below.
SIGNALS
When bash is interactive, in the absence of any traps, it ignores
SIGTERM (so that kill 0 does not kill an interactive shell), and SIGINT
is caught and handled (so that the wait builtin is interruptible). In
all cases, bash ignores SIGQUIT. If job control is in effect, bash
ignores SIGTTIN, SIGTTOU, and SIGTSTP.
Non-builtin commands run by bash have signal handlers set to the values
inherited by the shell from its parent. When job control is not in
effect, asynchronous commands ignore SIGINT and SIGQUIT in addition to
these inherited handlers. Commands run as a result of command substi-
tution ignore the keyboard-generated job control signals SIGTTIN, SIGT-
TOU, and SIGTSTP.
The shell exits by default upon receipt of a SIGHUP. Before exiting,
an interactive shell resends the SIGHUP to all jobs, running or
stopped. Stopped jobs are sent SIGCONT to ensure that they receive the
SIGHUP. To prevent the shell from sending the signal to a particular
job, it should be removed from the jobs table with the disown builtin
(see SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS below) or marked to not receive SIGHUP
using disown -h.
If the huponexit shell option has been set with shopt, bash sends a
SIGHUP to all jobs when an interactive login shell exits.
If bash is waiting for a command to complete and receives a signal for
which a trap has been set, the trap will not be executed until the com-
mand completes. When bash is waiting for an asynchronous command via
the wait builtin, the reception of a signal for which a trap has been
set will cause the wait builtin to return immediately with an exit sta-
tus greater than 128, immediately after which the trap is executed.
JOB CONTROL
Job control refers to the ability to selectively stop (suspend) the
execution of processes and continue (resume) their execution at a later
point. A user typically employs this facility via an interactive
interface supplied jointly by the system’s terminal driver and bash.
The shell associates a job with each pipeline. It keeps a table of
currently executing jobs, which may be listed with the jobs command.
When bash starts a job asynchronously (in the background), it prints a
line that looks like:
[1] 25647
indicating that this job is job number 1 and that the process ID of the
last process in the pipeline associated with this job is 25647. All of
the processes in a single pipeline are members of the same job. Bash
uses the job abstraction as the basis for job control.
To facilitate the implementation of the user interface to job control,
the operating system maintains the notion of a current terminal process
group ID. Members of this process group (processes whose process group
ID is equal to the current terminal process group ID) receive keyboard-
generated signals such as SIGINT. These processes are said to be in
the foreground. Background processes are those whose process group ID
differs from the terminal’s; such processes are immune to keyboard-gen-
erated signals. Only foreground processes are allowed to read from or
write to the terminal. Background processes which attempt to read from
(write to) the terminal are sent a SIGTTIN (SIGTTOU) signal by the ter-
minal driver, which, unless caught, suspends the process.
If the operating system on which bash is running supports job control,
bash contains facilities to use it. Typing the suspend character (typ-
ically ^Z, Control-Z) while a process is running causes that process to
be stopped and returns control to bash. Typing the delayed suspend
character (typically ^Y, Control-Y) causes the process to be stopped
when it attempts to read input from the terminal, and control to be
returned to bash. The user may then manipulate the state of this job,
using the bg command to continue it in the background, the fg command
to continue it in the foreground, or the kill command to kill it. A ^Z
takes effect immediately, and has the additional side effect of causing
pending output and typeahead to be discarded.
There are a number of ways to refer to a job in the shell. The charac-
ter % introduces a job name. Job number n may be referred to as %n. A
job may also be referred to using a prefix of the name used to start
it, or using a substring that appears in its command line. For exam-
ple, %ce refers to a stopped ce job. If a prefix matches more than one
job, bash reports an error. Using %?ce, on the other hand, refers to
any job containing the string ce in its command line. If the substring
matches more than one job, bash reports an error. The symbols %% and
%+ refer to the shell’s notion of the current job, which is the last
job stopped while it was in the foreground or started in the back-
ground. The previous job may be referenced using %-. When there is
the current job only, %- refers to the shell’s notion of the current
job. In output pertaining to jobs (e.g., the output of the jobs com-
mand), the current job is always flagged with a +, and the previous job
with a -. A single % (with no accompanying job specification) also
refers to the current job.
Simply naming a job can be used to bring it into the foreground: %1 is
a synonym for ‘‘fg %1’’, bringing job 1 from the background into the
foreground. Similarly, ‘‘%1 &’’ resumes job 1 in the background,
equivalent to ‘‘bg %1’’.
The shell learns immediately whenever a job changes state. Normally,
bash waits until it is about to print a prompt before reporting changes
in a job’s status so as to not interrupt any other output. If the -b
option to the set builtin command is enabled, bash reports such changes
immediately. Any trap on SIGCHLD is executed for each child that
exits.
If an attempt to exit bash is made while jobs are stopped, the shell
prints a warning message. The jobs command may then be used to inspect
their status. If a second attempt to exit is made without an interven-
ing command, the shell does not print another warning, and the stopped
jobs are terminated.
PROMPTING
When executing interactively, bash displays the primary prompt PS1 when
it is ready to read a command, and the secondary prompt PS2 when it
needs more input to complete a command. Bash allows these prompt
strings to be customized by inserting a number of backslash-escaped
special characters that are decoded as follows:
\a an ASCII bell character (07)
\d the date in "Weekday Month Date" format (e.g., "Tue May
26")
\D{format}
the format is passed to strftime(3) and the result is
inserted into the prompt string; an empty format results
in a locale-specific time representation. The braces are
required
\e an ASCII escape character (033)
\h the hostname up to the first ‘.’
\H the hostname
\j the number of jobs currently managed by the shell
\l the basename of the shell’s terminal device name
\n newline
\r carriage return
\s the name of the shell, the basename of $0 (the portion
following the final slash)
\t the current time in 24-hour HH:MM:SS format
\T the current time in 12-hour HH:MM:SS format
\@ the current time in 12-hour am/pm format
\A the current time in 24-hour HH:MM format
\u the username of the current user
\v the version of bash (e.g., 2.00)
\V the release of bash, version + patch level (e.g., 2.00.0)
\w the current working directory, with $HOME abbreviated
with a tilde
\W the basename of the current working directory, with $HOME
abbreviated with a tilde
\! the history number of this command
\# the command number of this command
\$ if the effective UID is 0, a #, otherwise a $
\nnn the character corresponding to the octal number nnn
\\ a backslash
\[ begin a sequence of non-printing characters, which could
be used to embed a terminal control sequence into the
prompt
\] end a sequence of non-printing characters
The command number and the history number are usually different: the
history number of a command is its position in the history list, which
may include commands restored from the history file (see HISTORY
below), while the command number is the position in the sequence of
commands executed during the current shell session. After the string
is decoded, it is expanded via parameter expansion, command substitu-
tion, arithmetic expansion, and quote removal, subject to the value of
the promptvars shell option (see the description of the shopt command
under SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS below).
READLINE
This is the library that handles reading input when using an interac-
tive shell, unless the --noediting option is given at shell invocation.
By default, the line editing commands are similar to those of emacs. A
vi-style line editing interface is also available. To turn off line
editing after the shell is running, use the +o emacs or +o vi options
to the set builtin (see SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS below).
Readline Notation
In this section, the emacs-style notation is used to denote keystrokes.
Control keys are denoted by C-key, e.g., C-n means Control-N. Simi-
larly, meta keys are denoted by M-key, so M-x means Meta-X. (On key-
boards without a meta key, M-x means ESC x, i.e., press the Escape key
then the x key. This makes ESC the meta prefix. The combination M-C-x
means ESC-Control-x, or press the Escape key then hold the Control key
while pressing the x key.)
Readline commands may be given numeric arguments, which normally act as
a repeat count. Sometimes, however, it is the sign of the argument
that is significant. Passing a negative argument to a command that
acts in the forward direction (e.g., kill-line) causes that command to
act in a backward direction. Commands whose behavior with arguments
deviates from this are noted below.
When a command is described as killing text, the text deleted is saved
for possible future retrieval (yanking). The killed text is saved in a
kill ring. Consecutive kills cause the text to be accumulated into one
unit, which can be yanked all at once. Commands which do not kill text
separate the chunks of text on the kill ring.
Readline Initialization
Readline is customized by putting commands in an initialization file
(the inputrc file). The name of this file is taken from the value of
the INPUTRC variable. If that variable is unset, the default is
~/.inputrc. When a program which uses the readline library starts up,
the initialization file is read, and the key bindings and variables are
set. There are only a few basic constructs allowed in the readline
initialization file. Blank lines are ignored. Lines beginning with a
# are comments. Lines beginning with a $ indicate conditional con-
structs. Other lines denote key bindings and variable settings.
The default key-bindings may be changed with an inputrc file. Other
programs that use this library may add their own commands and bindings.
For example, placing
M-Control-u: universal-argument
or
C-Meta-u: universal-argument
into the inputrc would make M-C-u execute the readline command univer-
sal-argument.
The following symbolic character names are recognized: RUBOUT, DEL,
ESC, LFD, NEWLINE, RET, RETURN, SPC, SPACE, and TAB.
In addition to command names, readline allows keys to be bound to a
string that is inserted when the key is pressed (a macro).
Readline Key Bindings
The syntax for controlling key bindings in the inputrc file is simple.
All that is required is the name of the command or the text of a macro
and a key sequence to which it should be bound. The name may be speci-
fied in one of two ways: as a symbolic key name, possibly with Meta- or
Control- prefixes, or as a key sequence.
When using the form keyname:function-name or macro, keyname is the name
of a key spelled out in English. For example:
Control-u: universal-argument
Meta-Rubout: backward-kill-word
Control-o: "> output"
In the above example, C-u is bound to the function universal-argument,
M-DEL is bound to the function backward-kill-word, and C-o is bound to
run the macro expressed on the right hand side (that is, to insert the
text ‘‘> output’’ into the line).
In the second form, "keyseq":function-name or macro, keyseq differs
from keyname above in that strings denoting an entire key sequence may
be specified by placing the sequence within double quotes. Some GNU
Emacs style key escapes can be used, as in the following example, but
the symbolic character names are not recognized.
"\C-u": universal-argument
"\C-x\C-r": re-read-init-file
"\e[11~": "Function Key 1"
In this example, C-u is again bound to the function universal-argument.
C-x C-r is bound to the function re-read-init-file, and ESC [ 1 1 ~ is
bound to insert the text ‘‘Function Key 1’’.
The full set of GNU Emacs style escape sequences is
\C- control prefix
\M- meta prefix
\e an escape character
\\ backslash
\" literal "
\' literal '
In addition to the GNU Emacs style escape sequences, a second set of
backslash escapes is available:
\a alert (bell)
\b backspace
\d delete
\f form feed
\n newline
\r carriage return
\t horizontal tab
\v vertical tab
\nnn the eight-bit character whose value is the octal value
nnn (one to three digits)
\xHH the eight-bit character whose value is the hexadecimal
value HH (one or two hex digits)
When entering the text of a macro, single or double quotes must be used
to indicate a macro definition. Unquoted text is assumed to be a func-
tion name. In the macro body, the backslash escapes described above
are expanded. Backslash will quote any other character in the macro
text, including " and '.
Bash allows the current readline key bindings to be displayed or modi-
fied with the bind builtin command. The editing mode may be switched
during interactive use by using the -o option to the set builtin com-
mand (see SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS below).
Readline Variables
Readline has variables that can be used to further customize its behav-
ior. A variable may be set in the inputrc file with a statement of the
form
set variable-name value
Except where noted, readline variables can take the values On or Off
(without regard to case). Unrecognized variable names are ignored.
When a variable value is read, empty or null values, "on" (case-insen-
sitive), and "1" are equivalent to On. All other values are equivalent
to Off. The variables and their default values are:
bell-style (audible)
Controls what happens when readline wants to ring the terminal
bell. If set to none, readline never rings the bell. If set to
visible, readline uses a visible bell if one is available. If
set to audible, readline attempts to ring the terminal’s bell.
bind-tty-special-chars (On)
If set to On, readline attempts to bind the control characters
treated specially by the kernel’s terminal driver to their read-
line equivalents.
comment-begin (‘‘#’’)
The string that is inserted when the readline insert-comment
command is executed. This command is bound to M-# in emacs mode
and to # in vi command mode.
completion-ignore-case (Off)
If set to On, readline performs filename matching and completion
in a case-insensitive fashion.
completion-query-items (100)
This determines when the user is queried about viewing the num-
ber of possible completions generated by the possible-comple-
tions command. It may be set to any integer value greater than
or equal to zero. If the number of possible completions is
greater than or equal to the value of this variable, the user is
asked whether or not he wishes to view them; otherwise they are
simply listed on the terminal.
convert-meta (On)
If set to On, readline will convert characters with the eighth
bit set to an ASCII key sequence by stripping the eighth bit and
prefixing an escape character (in effect, using escape as the
meta prefix).
disable-completion (Off)
If set to On, readline will inhibit word completion. Completion
characters will be inserted into the line as if they had been
mapped to self-insert.
editing-mode (emacs)
Controls whether readline begins with a set of key bindings sim-
ilar to emacs or vi. editing-mode can be set to either emacs or
vi.
enable-keypad (Off)
When set to On, readline will try to enable the application key-
pad when it is called. Some systems need this to enable the
arrow keys.
expand-tilde (Off)
If set to on, tilde expansion is performed when readline
attempts word completion.
history-preserve-point (Off)
If set to on, the history code attempts to place point at the
same location on each history line retrieved with previous-his-
tory or next-history.
horizontal-scroll-mode (Off)
When set to On, makes readline use a single line for display,
scrolling the input horizontally on a single screen line when it
becomes longer than the screen width rather than wrapping to a
new line.
input-meta (Off)
If set to On, readline will enable eight-bit input (that is, it
will not strip the high bit from the characters it reads),
regardless of what the terminal claims it can support. The name
meta-flag is a synonym for this variable.
isearch-terminators (‘‘C-[C-J’’)
The string of characters that should terminate an incremental
search without subsequently executing the character as a com-
mand. If this variable has not been given a value, the charac-
ters ESC and C-J will terminate an incremental search.
keymap (emacs)
Set the current readline keymap. The set of valid keymap names
is emacs, emacs-standard, emacs-meta, emacs-ctlx, vi, vi-com-
mand, and vi-insert. vi is equivalent to vi-command; emacs is
equivalent to emacs-standard. The default value is emacs; the
value of editing-mode also affects the default keymap.
mark-directories (On)
If set to On, completed directory names have a slash appended.
mark-modified-lines (Off)
If set to On, history lines that have been modified are dis-
played with a preceding asterisk (*).
mark-symlinked-directories (Off)
If set to On, completed names which are symbolic links to direc-
tories have a slash appended (subject to the value of
mark-directories).
match-hidden-files (On)
This variable, when set to On, causes readline to match files
whose names begin with a ‘.’ (hidden files) when performing
filename completion, unless the leading ‘.’ is supplied by the
user in the filename to be completed.
output-meta (Off)
If set to On, readline will display characters with the eighth
bit set directly rather than as a meta-prefixed escape sequence.
page-completions (On)
If set to On, readline uses an internal more-like pager to dis-
play a screenful of possible completions at a time.
print-completions-horizontally (Off)
If set to On, readline will display completions with matches
sorted horizontally in alphabetical order, rather than down the
screen.
show-all-if-ambiguous (Off)
This alters the default behavior of the completion functions.
If set to on, words which have more than one possible completion
cause the matches to be listed immediately instead of ringing
the bell.
show-all-if-unmodified (Off)
This alters the default behavior of the completion functions in
a fashion similar to show-all-if-ambiguous. If set to on, words
which have more than one possible completion without any possi-
ble partial completion (the possible completions don’t share a
common prefix) cause the matches to be listed immediately
instead of ringing the bell.
visible-stats (Off)
If set to On, a character denoting a file’s type as reported by
stat(2) is appended to the filename when listing possible com-
pletions.
Readline Conditional Constructs
Readline implements a facility similar in spirit to the conditional
compilation features of the C preprocessor which allows key bindings
and variable settings to be performed as the result of tests. There
are four parser directives used.
$if The $if construct allows bindings to be made based on the edit-
ing mode, the terminal being used, or the application using
readline. The text of the test extends to the end of the line;
no characters are required to isolate it.
mode The mode= form of the $if directive is used to test
whether readline is in emacs or vi mode. This may be
used in conjunction with the set keymap command, for
instance, to set bindings in the emacs-standard and
emacs-ctlx keymaps only if readline is starting out in
emacs mode.
term The term= form may be used to include terminal-specific
key bindings, perhaps to bind the key sequences output by
the terminal’s function keys. The word on the right side
of the = is tested against the both full name of the ter-
minal and the portion of the terminal name before the
first -. This allows sun to match both sun and sun-cmd,
for instance.
application
The application construct is used to include application-
specific settings. Each program using the readline
library sets the application name, and an initialization
file can test for a particular value. This could be used
to bind key sequences to functions useful for a specific
program. For instance, the following command adds a key
sequence that quotes the current or previous word in
Bash:
$if Bash
# Quote the current or previous word
"\C-xq": "\eb\"\ef\""
$endif
$endif This command, as seen in the previous example, terminates an $if
command.
$else Commands in this branch of the $if directive are executed if the
test fails.
$include
This directive takes a single filename as an argument and reads
commands and bindings from that file. For example, the follow-
ing directive would read /etc/inputrc:
$include /etc/inputrc
Searching
Readline provides commands for searching through the command history
(see HISTORY below) for lines containing a specified string. There are
two search modes: incremental and non-incremental.
Incremental searches begin before the user has finished typing the
search string. As each character of the search string is typed, read-
line displays the next entry from the history matching the string typed
so far. An incremental search requires only as many characters as
needed to find the desired history entry. The characters present in
the value of the isearch-terminators variable are used to terminate an
incremental search. If that variable has not been assigned a value the
Escape and Control-J characters will terminate an incremental search.
Control-G will abort an incremental search and restore the original
line. When the search is terminated, the history entry containing the
search string becomes the current line.
To find other matching entries in the history list, type Control-S or
Control-R as appropriate. This will search backward or forward in the
history for the next entry matching the search string typed so far.
Any other key sequence bound to a readline command will terminate the
search and execute that command. For instance, a newline will termi-
nate the search and accept the line, thereby executing the command from
the history list.
Readline remembers the last incremental search string. If two Control-
Rs are typed without any intervening characters defining a new search
string, any remembered search string is used.
Non-incremental searches read the entire search string before starting
to search for matching history lines. The search string may be typed
by the user or be part of the contents of the current line.
Readline Command Names
The following is a list of the names of the commands and the default
key sequences to which they are bound. Command names without an accom-
panying key sequence are unbound by default. In the following descrip-
tions, point refers to the current cursor position, and mark refers to
a cursor position saved by the set-mark command. The text between the
point and mark is referred to as the region.
Commands for Moving
beginning-of-line (C-a)
Move to the start of the current line.
end-of-line (C-e)
Move to the end of the line.
forward-char (C-f)
Move forward a character.
backward-char (C-b)
Move back a character.
forward-word (M-f)
Move forward to the end of the next word. Words are composed of
alphanumeric characters (letters and digits).
backward-word (M-b)
Move back to the start of the current or previous word. Words
are composed of alphanumeric characters (letters and digits).
clear-screen (C-l)
Clear the screen leaving the current line at the top of the
screen. With an argument, refresh the current line without
clearing the screen.
redraw-current-line
Refresh the current line.
Commands for Manipulating the History
accept-line (Newline, Return)
Accept the line regardless of where the cursor is. If this line
is non-empty, add it to the history list according to the state
of the HISTCONTROL variable. If the line is a modified history
line, then restore the history line to its original state.
previous-history (C-p)
Fetch the previous command from the history list, moving back in
the list.
next-history (C-n)
Fetch the next command from the history list, moving forward in
the list.
beginning-of-history (M-<)
Move to the first line in the history.
end-of-history (M->)
Move to the end of the input history, i.e., the line currently
being entered.
reverse-search-history (C-r)
Search backward starting at the current line and moving ‘up’
through the history as necessary. This is an incremental
search.
forward-search-history (C-s)
Search forward starting at the current line and moving ‘down’
through the history as necessary. This is an incremental
search.
non-incremental-reverse-search-history (M-p)
Search backward through the history starting at the current line
using a non-incremental search for a string supplied by the
user.
non-incremental-forward-search-history (M-n)
Search forward through the history using a non-incremental
search for a string supplied by the user.
history-search-forward
Search forward through the history for the string of characters
between the start of the current line and the point. This is a
non-incremental search.
history-search-backward
Search backward through the history for the string of characters
between the start of the current line and the point. This is a
non-incremental search.
yank-nth-arg (M-C-y)
Insert the first argument to the previous command (usually the
second word on the previous line) at point. With an argument n,
insert the nth word from the previous command (the words in the
previous command begin with word 0). A negative argument
inserts the nth word from the end of the previous command. Once
the argument n is computed, the argument is extracted as if the
"!n" history expansion had been specified.
yank-last-arg (M-., M-_)
Insert the last argument to the previous command (the last word
of the previous history entry). With an argument, behave
exactly like yank-nth-arg. Successive calls to yank-last-arg
move back through the history list, inserting the last argument
of each line in turn. The history expansion facilities are used
to extract the last argument, as if the "!$" history expansion
had been specified.
shell-expand-line (M-C-e)
Expand the line as the shell does. This performs alias and his-
tory expansion as well as all of the shell word expansions. See
HISTORY EXPANSION below for a description of history expansion.
history-expand-line (M-^)
Perform history expansion on the current line. See HISTORY
EXPANSION below for a description of history expansion.
magic-space
Perform history expansion on the current line and insert a
space. See HISTORY EXPANSION below for a description of history
expansion.
alias-expand-line
Perform alias expansion on the current line. See ALIASES above
for a description of alias expansion.
history-and-alias-expand-line
Perform history and alias expansion on the current line.
insert-last-argument (M-., M-_)
A synonym for yank-last-arg.
operate-and-get-next (C-o)
Accept the current line for execution and fetch the next line
relative to the current line from the history for editing. Any
argument is ignored.
edit-and-execute-command (C-xC-e)
Invoke an editor on the current command line, and execute the
result as shell commands. Bash attempts to invoke $FCEDIT,
$EDITOR, and emacs as the editor, in that order.
Commands for Changing Text
delete-char (C-d)
Delete the character at point. If point is at the beginning of
the line, there are no characters in the line, and the last
character typed was not bound to delete-char, then return EOF.
backward-delete-char (Rubout)
Delete the character behind the cursor. When given a numeric
argument, save the deleted text on the kill ring.
forward-backward-delete-char
Delete the character under the cursor, unless the cursor is at
the end of the line, in which case the character behind the cur-
sor is deleted.
quoted-insert (C-q, C-v)
Add the next character typed to the line verbatim. This is how
to insert characters like C-q, for example.
tab-insert (C-v TAB)
Insert a tab character.
self-insert (a, b, A, 1, !, ...)
Insert the character typed.
transpose-chars (C-t)
Drag the character before point forward over the character at
point, moving point forward as well. If point is at the end of
the line, then this transposes the two characters before point.
Negative arguments have no effect.
transpose-words (M-t)
Drag the word before point past the word after point, moving
point over that word as well. If point is at the end of the
line, this transposes the last two words on the line.
upcase-word (M-u)
Uppercase the current (or following) word. With a negative
argument, uppercase the previous word, but do not move point.
downcase-word (M-l)
Lowercase the current (or following) word. With a negative
argument, lowercase the previous word, but do not move point.
capitalize-word (M-c)
Capitalize the current (or following) word. With a negative
argument, capitalize the previous word, but do not move point.
overwrite-mode
Toggle overwrite mode. With an explicit positive numeric argu-
ment, switches to overwrite mode. With an explicit non-positive
numeric argument, switches to insert mode. This command affects
only emacs mode; vi mode does overwrite differently. Each call
to readline() starts in insert mode. In overwrite mode, charac-
ters bound to self-insert replace the text at point rather than
pushing the text to the right. Characters bound to back-
ward-delete-char replace the character before point with a
space. By default, this command is unbound.
Killing and Yanking
kill-line (C-k)
Kill the text from point to the end of the line.
backward-kill-line (C-x Rubout)
Kill backward to the beginning of the line.
unix-line-discard (C-u)
Kill backward from point to the beginning of the line. The
killed text is saved on the kill-ring.
kill-whole-line
Kill all characters on the current line, no matter where point
is.
kill-word (M-d)
Kill from point to the end of the current word, or if between
words, to the end of the next word. Word boundaries are the
same as those used by forward-word.
backward-kill-word (M-Rubout)
Kill the word behind point. Word boundaries are the same as
those used by backward-word.
unix-word-rubout (C-w)
Kill the word behind point, using white space as a word bound-
ary. The killed text is saved on the kill-ring.
unix-filename-rubout
Kill the word behind point, using white space and the slash
character as the word boundaries. The killed text is saved on
the kill-ring.
delete-horizontal-space (M-\)
Delete all spaces and tabs around point.
kill-region
Kill the text in the current region.
copy-region-as-kill
Copy the text in the region to the kill buffer.
copy-backward-word
Copy the word before point to the kill buffer. The word bound-
aries are the same as backward-word.
copy-forward-word
Copy the word following point to the kill buffer. The word
boundaries are the same as forward-word.
yank (C-y)
Yank the top of the kill ring into the buffer at point.
yank-pop (M-y)
Rotate the kill ring, and yank the new top. Only works follow-
ing yank or yank-pop.
Numeric Arguments
digit-argument (M-0, M-1, ..., M--)
Add this digit to the argument already accumulating, or start a
new argument. M-- starts a negative argument.
universal-argument
This is another way to specify an argument. If this command is
followed by one or more digits, optionally with a leading minus
sign, those digits define the argument. If the command is fol-
lowed by digits, executing universal-argument again ends the
numeric argument, but is otherwise ignored. As a special case,
if this command is immediately followed by a character that is
neither a digit or minus sign, the argument count for the next
command is multiplied by four. The argument count is initially
one, so executing this function the first time makes the argu-
ment count four, a second time makes the argument count sixteen,
and so on.
Completing
complete (TAB)
Attempt to perform completion on the text before point. Bash
attempts completion treating the text as a variable (if the text
begins with $), username (if the text begins with ~), hostname
(if the text begins with @), or command (including aliases and
functions) in turn. If none of these produces a match, filename
completion is attempted.
possible-completions (M-?)
List the possible completions of the text before point.
insert-completions (M-*)
Insert all completions of the text before point that would have
been generated by possible-completions.
menu-complete
Similar to complete, but replaces the word to be completed with
a single match from the list of possible completions. Repeated
execution of menu-complete steps through the list of possible
completions, inserting each match in turn. At the end of the
list of completions, the bell is rung (subject to the setting of
bell-style) and the original text is restored. An argument of n
moves n positions forward in the list of matches; a negative
argument may be used to move backward through the list. This
command is intended to be bound to TAB, but is unbound by
default.
delete-char-or-list
Deletes the character under the cursor if not at the beginning
or end of the line (like delete-char). If at the end of the
line, behaves identically to possible-completions. This command
is unbound by default.
complete-filename (M-/)
Attempt filename completion on the text before point.
possible-filename-completions (C-x /)
List the possible completions of the text before point, treating
it as a filename.
complete-username (M-~)
Attempt completion on the text before point, treating it as a
username.
possible-username-completions (C-x ~)
List the possible completions of the text before point, treating
it as a username.
complete-variable (M-$)
Attempt completion on the text before point, treating it as a
shell variable.
possible-variable-completions (C-x $)
List the possible completions of the text before point, treating
it as a shell variable.
complete-hostname (M-@)
Attempt completion on the text before point, treating it as a
hostname.
possible-hostname-completions (C-x @)
List the possible completions of the text before point, treating
it as a hostname.
complete-command (M-!)
Attempt completion on the text before point, treating it as a
command name. Command completion attempts to match the text
against aliases, reserved words, shell functions, shell
builtins, and finally executable filenames, in that order.
possible-command-completions (C-x !)
List the possible completions of the text before point, treating
it as a command name.
dynamic-complete-history (M-TAB)
Attempt completion on the text before point, comparing the text
against lines from the history list for possible completion
matches.
complete-into-braces (M-{)
Perform filename completion and insert the list of possible com-
pletions enclosed within braces so the list is available to the
shell (see Brace Expansion above).
Keyboard Macros
start-kbd-macro (C-x ()
Begin saving the characters typed into the current keyboard
macro.
end-kbd-macro (C-x ))
Stop saving the characters typed into the current keyboard macro
and store the definition.
call-last-kbd-macro (C-x e)
Re-execute the last keyboard macro defined, by making the char-
acters in the macro appear as if typed at the keyboard.
Miscellaneous
re-read-init-file (C-x C-r)
Read in the contents of the inputrc file, and incorporate any
bindings or variable assignments found there.
abort (C-g)
Abort the current editing command and ring the terminal’s bell
(subject to the setting of bell-style).
do-uppercase-version (M-a, M-b, M-x, ...)
If the metafied character x is lowercase, run the command that
is bound to the corresponding uppercase character.
prefix-meta (ESC)
Metafy the next character typed. ESC f is equivalent to Meta-f.
undo (C-_, C-x C-u)
Incremental undo, separately remembered for each line.
revert-line (M-r)
Undo all changes made to this line. This is like executing the
undo command enough times to return the line to its initial
state.
tilde-expand (M-&)
Perform tilde expansion on the current word.
set-mark (C-@, M-<space>)
Set the mark to the point. If a numeric argument is supplied,
the mark is set to that position.
exchange-point-and-mark (C-x C-x)
Swap the point with the mark. The current cursor position is
set to the saved position, and the old cursor position is saved
as the mark.
character-search (C-])
A character is read and point is moved to the next occurrence of
that character. A negative count searches for previous occur-
rences.
character-search-backward (M-C-])
A character is read and point is moved to the previous occur-
rence of that character. A negative count searches for subse-
quent occurrences.
insert-comment (M-#)
Without a numeric argument, the value of the readline com-
ment-begin variable is inserted at the beginning of the current
line. If a numeric argument is supplied, this command acts as a
toggle: if the characters at the beginning of the line do not
match the value of comment-begin, the value is inserted, other-
wise the characters in comment-begin are deleted from the begin-
ning of the line. In either case, the line is accepted as if a
newline had been typed. The default value of comment-begin
causes this command to make the current line a shell comment.
If a numeric argument causes the comment character to be
removed, the line will be executed by the shell.
glob-complete-word (M-g)
The word before point is treated as a pattern for pathname
expansion, with an asterisk implicitly appended. This pattern
is used to generate a list of matching file names for possible
completions.
glob-expand-word (C-x *)
The word before point is treated as a pattern for pathname
expansion, and the list of matching file names is inserted,
replacing the word. If a numeric argument is supplied, an
asterisk is appended before pathname expansion.
glob-list-expansions (C-x g)
The list of expansions that would have been generated by
glob-expand-word is displayed, and the line is redrawn. If a
numeric argument is supplied, an asterisk is appended before
pathname expansion.
dump-functions
Print all of the functions and their key bindings to the read-
line output stream. If a numeric argument is supplied, the out-
put is formatted in such a way that it can be made part of an
inputrc file.
dump-variables
Print all of the settable readline variables and their values to
the readline output stream. If a numeric argument is supplied,
the output is formatted in such a way that it can be made part
of an inputrc file.
dump-macros
Print all of the readline key sequences bound to macros and the
strings they output. If a numeric argument is supplied, the
output is formatted in such a way that it can be made part of an
inputrc file.
display-shell-version (C-x C-v)
Display version information about the current instance of bash.
Programmable Completion
When word completion is attempted for an argument to a command for
which a completion specification (a compspec) has been defined using
the complete builtin (see SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS below), the pro-
grammable completion facilities are invoked.
First, the command name is identified. If a compspec has been defined
for that command, the compspec is used to generate the list of possible
completions for the word. If the command word is a full pathname, a
compspec for the full pathname is searched for first. If no compspec
is found for the full pathname, an attempt is made to find a compspec
for the portion following the final slash.
Once a compspec has been found, it is used to generate the list of
matching words. If a compspec is not found, the default bash comple-
tion as described above under Completing is performed.
First, the actions specified by the compspec are used. Only matches
which are prefixed by the word being completed are returned. When the
-f or -d option is used for filename or directory name completion, the
shell variable FIGNORE is used to filter the matches.
Any completions specified by a filename expansion pattern to the -G
option are generated next. The words generated by the pattern need not
match the word being completed. The GLOBIGNORE shell variable is not
used to filter the matches, but the FIGNORE variable is used.
Next, the string specified as the argument to the -W option is consid-
ered. The string is first split using the characters in the IFS spe-
cial variable as delimiters. Shell quoting is honored. Each word is
then expanded using brace expansion, tilde expansion, parameter and
variable expansion, command substitution, and arithmetic expansion, as
described above under EXPANSION. The results are split using the rules
described above under Word Splitting. The results of the expansion are
prefix-matched against the word being completed, and the matching words
become the possible completions.
After these matches have been generated, any shell function or command
specified with the -F and -C options is invoked. When the command or
function is invoked, the COMP_LINE and COMP_POINT variables are
assigned values as described above under Shell Variables. If a shell
function is being invoked, the COMP_WORDS and COMP_CWORD variables are
also set. When the function or command is invoked, the first argument
is the name of the command whose arguments are being completed, the
second argument is the word being completed, and the third argument is
the word preceding the word being completed on the current command
line. No filtering of the generated completions against the word being
completed is performed; the function or command has complete freedom in
generating the matches.
Any function specified with -F is invoked first. The function may use
any of the shell facilities, including the compgen builtin described
below, to generate the matches. It must put the possible completions
in the COMPREPLY array variable.
Next, any command specified with the -C option is invoked in an envi-
ronment equivalent to command substitution. It should print a list of
completions, one per line, to the standard output. Backslash may be
used to escape a newline, if necessary.
After all of the possible completions are generated, any filter speci-
fied with the -X option is applied to the list. The filter is a pat-
tern as used for pathname expansion; a & in the pattern is replaced
with the text of the word being completed. A literal & may be escaped
with a backslash; the backslash is removed before attempting a match.
Any completion that matches the pattern will be removed from the list.
A leading ! negates the pattern; in this case any completion not match-
ing the pattern will be removed.
Finally, any prefix and suffix specified with the -P and -S options are
added to each member of the completion list, and the result is returned
to the readline completion code as the list of possible completions.
If the previously-applied actions do not generate any matches, and the
-o dirnames option was supplied to complete when the compspec was
defined, directory name completion is attempted.
If the -o plusdirs option was supplied to complete when the compspec
was defined, directory name completion is attempted and any matches are
added to the results of the other actions.
By default, if a compspec is found, whatever it generates is returned
to the completion code as the full set of possible completions. The
default bash completions are not attempted, and the readline default of
filename completion is disabled. If the -o bashdefault option was sup-
plied to complete when the compspec was defined, the bash default com-
pletions are attempted if the compspec generates no matches. If the -o
default option was supplied to complete when the compspec was defined,
readline’s default completion will be performed if the compspec (and,
if attempted, the default bash completions) generate no matches.
When a compspec indicates that directory name completion is desired,
the programmable completion functions force readline to append a slash
to completed names which are symbolic links to directories, subject to
the value of the mark-directories readline variable, regardless of the
setting of the mark-symlinked-directories readline variable.
HISTORY
When the -o history option to the set builtin is enabled, the shell
provides access to the command history, the list of commands previously
typed. The value of the HISTSIZE variable is used as the number of
commands to save in a history list. The text of the last HISTSIZE com-
mands (default 500) is saved. The shell stores each command in the
history list prior to parameter and variable expansion (see EXPANSION
above) but after history expansion is performed, subject to the values
of the shell variables HISTIGNORE and HISTCONTROL.
On startup, the history is initialized from the file named by the vari-
able HISTFILE (default ~/.bash_history). The file named by the value
of HISTFILE is truncated, if necessary, to contain no more than the
number of lines specified by the value of HISTFILESIZE. When an inter-
active shell exits, the last $HISTSIZE lines are copied from the his-
tory list to $HISTFILE. If the histappend shell option is enabled (see
the description of shopt under SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS below), the lines
are appended to the history file, otherwise the history file is over-
written. If HISTFILE is unset, or if the history file is unwritable,
the history is not saved. After saving the history, the history file
is truncated to contain no more than HISTFILESIZE lines. If HISTFILE-
SIZE is not set, no truncation is performed.
The builtin command fc (see SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS below) may be used
to list or edit and re-execute a portion of the history list. The his-
tory builtin may be used to display or modify the history list and
manipulate the history file. When using command-line editing, search
commands are available in each editing mode that provide access to the
history list.
The shell allows control over which commands are saved on the history
list. The HISTCONTROL and HISTIGNORE variables may be set to cause the
shell to save only a subset of the commands entered. The cmdhist shell
option, if enabled, causes the shell to attempt to save each line of a
multi-line command in the same history entry, adding semicolons where
necessary to preserve syntactic correctness. The lithist shell option
causes the shell to save the command with embedded newlines instead of
semicolons. See the description of the shopt builtin below under SHELL
BUILTIN COMMANDS for information on setting and unsetting shell
options.
HISTORY EXPANSION
The shell supports a history expansion feature that is similar to the
history expansion in csh. This section describes what syntax features
are available. This feature is enabled by default for interactive
shells, and can be disabled using the +H option to the set builtin com-
mand (see SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS below). Non-interactive shells do not
perform history expansion by default.
History expansions introduce words from the history list into the input
stream, making it easy to repeat commands, insert the arguments to a
previous command into the current input line, or fix errors in previous
commands quickly.
History expansion is performed immediately after a complete line is
read, before the shell breaks it into words. It takes place in two
parts. The first is to determine which line from the history list to
use during substitution. The second is to select portions of that line
for inclusion into the current one. The line selected from the history
is the event, and the portions of that line that are acted upon are
words. Various modifiers are available to manipulate the selected
words. The line is broken into words in the same fashion as when read-
ing input, so that several metacharacter-separated words surrounded by
quotes are considered one word. History expansions are introduced by
the appearance of the history expansion character, which is ! by
default. Only backslash (\) and single quotes can quote the history
expansion character.
Several characters inhibit history expansion if found immediately fol-
lowing the history expansion character, even if it is unquoted: space,
tab, newline, carriage return, and =. If the extglob shell option is
enabled, ( will also inhibit expansion.
Several shell options settable with the shopt builtin may be used to
tailor the behavior of history expansion. If the histverify shell
option is enabled (see the description of the shopt builtin), and read-
line is being used, history substitutions are not immediately passed to
the shell parser. Instead, the expanded line is reloaded into the
readline editing buffer for further modification. If readline is being
used, and the histreedit shell option is enabled, a failed history sub-
stitution will be reloaded into the readline editing buffer for correc-
tion. The -p option to the history builtin command may be used to see
what a history expansion will do before using it. The -s option to the
history builtin may be used to add commands to the end of the history
list without actually executing them, so that they are available for
subsequent recall.
The shell allows control of the various characters used by the history
expansion mechanism (see the description of histchars above under Shell
Variables).
Event Designators
An event designator is a reference to a command line entry in the his-
tory list.
! Start a history substitution, except when followed by a blank,
newline, carriage return, = or ( (when the extglob shell option
is enabled using the shopt builtin).
!n Refer to command line n.
!-n Refer to the current command line minus n.
!! Refer to the previous command. This is a synonym for ‘!-1’.
!string
Refer to the most recent command starting with string.
!?string[?]
Refer to the most recent command containing string. The trail-
ing ? may be omitted if string is followed immediately by a new-
line.
^string1^string2^
Quick substitution. Repeat the last command, replacing string1
with string2. Equivalent to ‘‘!!:s/string1/string2/’’ (see Mod-
ifiers below).
!# The entire command line typed so far.
Word Designators
Word designators are used to select desired words from the event. A :
separates the event specification from the word designator. It may be
omitted if the word designator begins with a ^, $, *, -, or %. Words
are numbered from the beginning of the line, with the first word being
denoted by 0 (zero). Words are inserted into the current line sepa-
rated by single spaces.
0 (zero)
The zeroth word. For the shell, this is the command word.
n The nth word.
^ The first argument. That is, word 1.
$ The last argument.
% The word matched by the most recent ‘?string?’ search.
x-y A range of words; ‘-y’ abbreviates ‘0-y’.
* All of the words but the zeroth. This is a synonym for ‘1-$’.
It is not an error to use * if there is just one word in the
event; the empty string is returned in that case.
x* Abbreviates x-$.
x- Abbreviates x-$ like x*, but omits the last word.
If a word designator is supplied without an event specification, the
previous command is used as the event.
Modifiers
After the optional word designator, there may appear a sequence of one
or more of the following modifiers, each preceded by a ‘:’.
h Remove a trailing file name component, leaving only the head.
t Remove all leading file name components, leaving the tail.
r Remove a trailing suffix of the form .xxx, leaving the basename.
e Remove all but the trailing suffix.
p Print the new command but do not execute it.
q Quote the substituted words, escaping further substitutions.
x Quote the substituted words as with q, but break into words at
blanks and newlines.
s/old/new/
Substitute new for the first occurrence of old in the event
line. Any delimiter can be used in place of /. The final
delimiter is optional if it is the last character of the event
line. The delimiter may be quoted in old and new with a single
backslash. If & appears in new, it is replaced by old. A sin-
gle backslash will quote the &. If old is null, it is set to
the last old substituted, or, if no previous history substitu-
tions took place, the last string in a !?string[?] search.
& Repeat the previous substitution.
g Cause changes to be applied over the entire event line. This is
used in conjunction with ‘:s’ (e.g., ‘:gs/old/new/’) or ‘:&’.
If used with ‘:s’, any delimiter can be used in place of /, and
the final delimiter is optional if it is the last character of
the event line. An a may be used as a synonym for g.
G Apply the following ‘s’ modifier once to each word in the event
line.
SHELL BUILTIN COMMANDS
Unless otherwise noted, each builtin command documented in this section
as accepting options preceded by - accepts -- to signify the end of the
options. For example, the :, true, false, and test builtins do not
accept options. Also, please note that while executing in non-interac-
tive mode and while in posix mode, any special builtin (like ., :,
break, continue, eval, exec, exit, export, readonly, return, set,
shift, source, times, trap, unset) exiting with a non-zero status
causes the shell to stop execution.
: [arguments]
No effect; the command does nothing beyond expanding arguments
and performing any specified redirections. A zero exit code is
returned.
alias [-p] [name[=value] ...]
Alias with no arguments or with the -p option prints the list of
aliases in the form alias name=value on standard output. When
arguments are supplied, an alias is defined for each name whose
value is given. A trailing space in value causes the next word
to be checked for alias substitution when the alias is expanded.
For each name in the argument list for which no value is sup-
plied, the name and value of the alias is printed. Alias
returns true unless a name is given for which no alias has been
defined.
Note aliases are not expanded by default in non-interactive
shell, and it can be enabled by setting the expand_aliases shell
option using shopt.
bg [jobspec ...]
Resume each suspended job jobspec in the background, as if it
had been started with &. If jobspec is not present, the shell’s
notion of the current job is used. bg jobspec returns 0 unless
run when job control is disabled or, when run with job control
enabled, any specified jobspec was not found or was started
without job control.
bind [-m keymap] [-lpsvPSV]
bind [-m keymap] [-q function] [-u function] [-r keyseq]
bind [-m keymap] -f filename
bind [-m keymap] -x keyseq:shell-command
bind [-m keymap] keyseq:function-name
bind readline-command
Display current readline key and function bindings, bind a key
sequence to a readline function or macro, or set a readline
variable. Each non-option argument is a command as it would
appear in .inputrc, but each binding or command must be passed
as a separate argument; e.g., ’"\C-x\C-r": re-read-init-file’.
Options, if supplied, have the following meanings:
-m keymap
Use keymap as the keymap to be affected by the subsequent
bindings. Acceptable keymap names are emacs, emacs-stan-
dard, emacs-meta, emacs-ctlx, vi, vi-move, vi-command,
and vi-insert. vi is equivalent to vi-command; emacs is
equivalent to emacs-standard.
-l List the names of all readline functions.
-p Display readline function names and bindings in such a
way that they can be re-read.
-P List current readline function names and bindings.
-v Display readline variable names and values in such a way
that they can be re-read.
-V List current readline variable names and values.
-s Display readline key sequences bound to macros and the
strings they output in such a way that they can be re-
read.
-S Display readline key sequences bound to macros and the
strings they output.
-f filename
Read key bindings from filename.
-q function
Query about which keys invoke the named function.
-u function
Unbind all keys bound to the named function.
-r keyseq
Remove any current binding for keyseq.
-x keyseq:shell-command
Cause shell-command to be executed whenever keyseq is
entered.
The return value is 0 unless an unrecognized option is given or
an error occurred.
break [n]
Exit from within a for, while, until, or select loop. If n is
specified, break n levels. n must be ≥ 1. If n is greater than
the number of enclosing loops, all enclosing loops are exited.
The return value is non-zero when n is ≤ 0; Otherwise, break
returns 0 value.
builtin shell-builtin [arguments]
Execute the specified shell builtin, passing it arguments, and
return its exit status. This is useful when defining a function
whose name is the same as a shell builtin, retaining the func-
tionality of the builtin within the function. The cd builtin is
commonly redefined this way. The return status is false if
shell-builtin is not a shell builtin command.
cd [-L|-P] [dir]
Change the current directory to dir. The variable HOME is the
default dir. The variable CDPATH defines the search path for
the directory containing dir. Alternative directory names in
CDPATH are separated by a colon (:). A null directory name in
CDPATH is the same as the current directory, i.e., ‘‘.’’. If
dir begins with a slash (/), then CDPATH is not used. The -P
option says to use the physical directory structure instead of
following symbolic links (see also the -P option to the set
builtin command); the -L option forces symbolic links to be fol-
lowed. An argument of - is equivalent to $OLDPWD. If a non-
empty directory name from CDPATH is used, or if - is the first
argument, and the directory change is successful, the absolute
pathname of the new working directory is written to the standard
output. The return value is true if the directory was success-
fully changed; false otherwise.
caller [expr]
Returns the context of any active subroutine call (a shell func-
tion or a script executed with the . or source builtins. With-
out expr, caller displays the line number and source filename of
the current subroutine call. If a non-negative integer is sup-
plied as expr, caller displays the line number, subroutine name,
and source file corresponding to that position in the current
execution call stack. This extra information may be used, for
example, to print a stack trace. The current frame is frame 0.
The return value is 0 unless the shell is not executing a sub-
routine call or expr does not correspond to a valid position in
the call stack.
command [-pVv] command [arg ...]
Run command with args suppressing the normal shell function
lookup. Only builtin commands or commands found in the PATH are
executed. If the -p option is given, the search for command is
performed using a default value for PATH that is guaranteed to
find all of the standard utilities. If either the -V or -v
option is supplied, a description of command is printed. The -v
option causes a single word indicating the command or file name
used to invoke command to be displayed; the -V option produces a
more verbose description. If the -V or -v option is supplied,
the exit status is 0 if command was found, and 1 if not. If
neither option is supplied and an error occurred or command can-
not be found, the exit status is 127. Otherwise, the exit sta-
tus of the command builtin is the exit status of command.
compgen [option] [word]
Generate possible completion matches for word according to the
options, which may be any option accepted by the complete
builtin with the exception of -p and -r, and write the matches
to the standard output. When using the -F or -C options, the
various shell variables set by the programmable completion
facilities, while available, will not have useful values.
The matches will be generated in the same way as if the pro-
grammable completion code had generated them directly from a
completion specification with the same flags. If word is speci-
fied, only those completions matching word will be displayed.
The return value is true unless an invalid option is supplied,
or no matches were generated.
complete [-abcdefgjksuv] [-o comp-option] [-A action] [-G globpat] [-W
wordlist] [-P prefix] [-S suffix]
[-X filterpat] [-F function] [-C command] name [name ...]
complete -pr [name ...]
Specify how arguments to each name should be completed. If the
-p option is supplied, or if no options are supplied, existing
completion specifications are printed in a way that allows them
to be reused as input. The -r option removes a completion spec-
ification for each name, or, if no names are supplied, all com-
pletion specifications.
The process of applying these completion specifications when
word completion is attempted is described above under Pro-
grammable Completion.
Other options, if specified, have the following meanings. The
arguments to the -G, -W, and -X options (and, if necessary, the
-P and -S options) should be quoted to protect them from expan-
sion before the complete builtin is invoked.
-o comp-option
The comp-option controls several aspects of the comp-
spec’s behavior beyond the simple generation of comple-
tions. comp-option may be one of:
bashdefault
Perform the rest of the default bash completions
if the compspec generates no matches.
default Use readline’s default filename completion if
the compspec generates no matches.
dirnames
Perform directory name completion if the comp-
spec generates no matches.
filenames
Tell readline that the compspec generates file-
names, so it can perform any filename-specific
processing (like adding a slash to directory
names or suppressing trailing spaces). Intended
to be used with shell functions.
nospace Tell readline not to append a space (the
default) to words completed at the end of the
line.
plusdirs
After any matches defined by the compspec are
generated, directory name completion is
attempted and any matches are added to the
results of the other actions.
-A action
The action may be one of the following to generate a
list of possible completions:
alias Alias names. May also be specified as -a.
arrayvar
Array variable names.
binding Readline key binding names.
builtin Names of shell builtin commands. May also be
specified as -b.
command Command names. May also be specified as -c.
directory
Directory names. May also be specified as -d.
disabled
Names of disabled shell builtins.
enabled Names of enabled shell builtins.
export Names of exported shell variables. May also be
specified as -e.
file File names. May also be specified as -f.
function
Names of shell functions.
group Group names. May also be specified as -g.
helptopic
Help topics as accepted by the help builtin.
hostname
Hostnames, as taken from the file specified by
the HOSTFILE shell variable.
job Job names, if job control is active. May also
be specified as -j.
keyword Shell reserved words. May also be specified as
-k.
running Names of running jobs, if job control is active.
service Service names. May also be specified as -s.
setopt Valid arguments for the -o option to the set
builtin.
shopt Shell option names as accepted by the shopt
builtin.
signal Signal names.
stopped Names of stopped jobs, if job control is active.
user User names. May also be specified as -u.
variable
Names of all shell variables. May also be spec-
ified as -v.
-G globpat
The filename expansion pattern globpat is expanded to
generate the possible completions.
-W wordlist
The wordlist is split using the characters in the IFS
special variable as delimiters, and each resultant word
is expanded. The possible completions are the members
of the resultant list which match the word being com-
pleted.
-C command
command is executed in a subshell environment, and its
output is used as the possible completions.
-F function
The shell function function is executed in the current
shell environment. When it finishes, the possible com-
pletions are retrieved from the value of the COMPREPLY
array variable.
-X filterpat
filterpat is a pattern as used for filename expansion.
It is applied to the list of possible completions gener-
ated by the preceding options and arguments, and each
completion matching filterpat is removed from the list.
A leading ! in filterpat negates the pattern; in this
case, any completion not matching filterpat is removed.
-P prefix
prefix is added at the beginning of each possible com-
pletion after all other options have been applied.
-S suffix
suffix is appended to each possible completion after all
other options have been applied.
The return value is true unless an invalid option is supplied,
an option other than -p or -r is supplied without a name argu-
ment, an attempt is made to remove a completion specification
for a name for which no specification exists, or an error occurs
adding a completion specification.
continue [n]
Resume the next iteration of the enclosing for, while, until, or
select loop. If n is specified, resume at the nth enclosing
loop. n must be ≥ 1. If n is greater than the number of
enclosing loops, the last enclosing loop (the ‘‘top-level’’
loop) is resumed. When continue is executed inside of loop, the
return value is non-zero when n is ≤ 0; Otherwise, continue
returns 0 value. When continue is executed outside of loop, the
return value is 0.
declare [-afFirtx] [-p] [name[=value] ...]
typeset [-afFirtx] [-p] [name[=value] ...]
Declare variables and/or give them attributes. If no names are
given then display the values of variables. The -p option will
display the attributes and values of each name. When -p is
used, additional options are ignored. The -F option inhibits
the display of function definitions; only the function name and
attributes are printed. If the extdebug shell option is enabled
using shopt, the source file name and line number where the
function is defined are displayed as well. The -F option
implies -f. The following options can be used to restrict out-
put to variables with the specified attribute or to give vari-
ables attributes:
-a Each name is an array variable (see Arrays above).
-f Use function names only.
-i The variable is treated as an integer; arithmetic evalua-
tion (see ARITHMETIC EVALUATION ) is performed when the
variable is assigned a value.
-r Make names readonly. These names cannot then be assigned
values by subsequent assignment statements or unset.
-t Give each name the trace attribute. Traced functions
inherit the DEBUG and RETURN traps from the calling
shell. The trace attribute has no special meaning for
variables.
-x Mark names for export to subsequent commands via the
environment.
Using ‘+’ instead of ‘-’ turns off the attribute instead, with
the exception that +a may not be used to destroy an array vari-
able. When used in a function, makes each name local, as with
the local command. If a variable name is followed by =value,
the value of the variable is set to value. The return value is
0 unless an invalid option is encountered, an attempt is made to
define a function using ‘‘-f foo=bar’’, an attempt is made to
assign a value to a readonly variable, an attempt is made to
assign a value to an array variable without using the compound
assignment syntax (see Arrays above), one of the names is not a
valid shell variable name, an attempt is made to turn off read-
only status for a readonly variable, an attempt is made to turn
off array status for an array variable, or an attempt is made to
display a non-existent function with -f.
dirs [-clpv] [+n] [-n]
Without options, displays the list of currently remembered
directories. The default display is on a single line with
directory names separated by spaces. Directories are added to
the list with the pushd command; the popd command removes
entries from the list.
+n Displays the nth entry counting from the left of the list
shown by dirs when invoked without options, starting with
zero.
-n Displays the nth entry counting from the right of the
list shown by dirs when invoked without options, starting
with zero.
-c Clears the directory stack by deleting all of the
entries.
-l Produces a longer listing; the default listing format
uses a tilde to denote the home directory.
-p Print the directory stack with one entry per line.
-v Print the directory stack with one entry per line, pre-
fixing each entry with its index in the stack.
The return value is 0 unless an invalid option is supplied or n
indexes beyond the end of the directory stack.
disown [-ar] [-h] [jobspec ...]
Without options, each jobspec is removed from the table of
active jobs. If the -h option is given, each jobspec is not
removed from the table, but is marked so that SIGHUP is not sent
to the job if the shell receives a SIGHUP. If no jobspec is
present, and neither the -a nor the -r option is supplied, the
current job is used. If no jobspec is supplied, the -a option
means to remove or mark all jobs; the -r option without a job-
spec argument restricts operation to running jobs. The return
value is 0 unless a jobspec does not specify a valid job.
echo [-neE] [arg ...]
Output the args, separated by spaces, followed by a newline.
The return status is always 0. If -n is specified, the trailing
newline is suppressed. If the -e option is given, interpreta-
tion of the following backslash-escaped characters is enabled.
The -E option disables the interpretation of these escape char-
acters, even on systems where they are interpreted by default.
The xpg_echo shell option may be used to dynamically determine
whether or not echo expands these escape characters by default.
echo does not interpret -- to mean the end of options. echo
interprets the following escape sequences:
\a alert (bell)
\b backspace
\c suppress trailing newline
\e an escape character
\f form feed
\n new line
\r carriage return
\t horizontal tab
\v vertical tab
\\ backslash
\0nnn the eight-bit character whose value is the octal value
nnn (zero to three octal digits)
\xHH the eight-bit character whose value is the hexadecimal
value HH (one or two hex digits)
enable [-adnps] [-f filename] [name ...]
Enable and disable builtin shell commands. Disabling a builtin
allows a disk command which has the same name as a shell builtin
to be executed without specifying a full pathname, even though
the shell normally searches for builtins before disk commands.
If -n is used, each name is disabled; otherwise, names are
enabled. For example, to use the test binary found via the PATH
instead of the shell builtin version, run ‘‘enable -n test’’.
The -f option means to load the new builtin command name from
shared object filename, on systems that support dynamic loading.
The -d option will delete a builtin previously loaded with -f.
If no name arguments are given, or if the -p option is supplied,
a list of shell builtins is printed. With no other option argu-
ments, the list consists of all enabled shell builtins. If -n
is supplied, only disabled builtins are printed. If -a is sup-
plied, the list printed includes all builtins, with an indica-
tion of whether or not each is enabled. If -s is supplied, the
output is restricted to the POSIX special builtins. The return
value is 0 unless a name is not a shell builtin or there is an
error loading a new builtin from a shared object.
eval [arg ...]
The args are read and concatenated together into a single com-
mand. This command is then read and executed by the shell, and
its exit status is returned as the value of eval. If there are
no args, or only null arguments, eval returns 0.
exec [-cl] [-a name] [command [arguments]]
If command is specified, it replaces the shell. No new process
is created. The arguments become the arguments to command. If
the -l option is supplied, the shell places a dash at the begin-
ning of the zeroth arg passed to command. This is what login(1)
does. The -c option causes command to be executed with an empty
environment. If -a is supplied, the shell passes name as the
zeroth argument to the executed command. If command cannot be
executed for some reason, a non-interactive shell exits, unless
the shell option execfail is enabled, in which case it returns
failure. An interactive shell returns failure if the file can-
not be executed. If command is not specified, any redirections
take effect in the current shell, and the return status is 0.
If there is a redirection error, the return status is 1.
exit [n]
Cause the shell to exit with a status of n. If n is omitted,
the exit status is that of the last command executed. A trap on
EXIT is executed before the shell terminates.
export [-fn] [name[=word]] ...
export -p
The supplied names are marked for automatic export to the envi-
ronment of subsequently executed commands. If the -f option is
given, the names refer to functions. If no names are given, or
if the -p option is supplied, a list of all names that are
exported in this shell is printed. The -n option causes the
export property to be removed from each name. If a variable
name is followed by =word, the value of the variable is set to
word. export returns an exit status of 0 unless an invalid
option is encountered, one of the names is not a valid shell
variable name, or -f is supplied with a name that is not a func-
tion.
fc [-e ename] [-nlr] [first] [last]
fc -s [pat=rep] [cmd]
Fix Command. In the first form, a range of commands from first
to last is selected from the history list. First and last may
be specified as a string (to locate the last command beginning
with that string) or as a number (an index into the history
list, where a negative number is used as an offset from the cur-
rent command number). If last is not specified it is set to the
current command for listing (so that ‘‘fc -l -10’’ prints the
last 10 commands) and to first otherwise. If first is not spec-
ified it is set to the previous command for editing and -16 for
listing.
The -n option suppresses the command numbers when listing. The
-r option reverses the order of the commands. If the -l option
is given, the commands are listed on standard output. Other-
wise, the editor given by ename is invoked on a file containing
those commands. If ename is not given, the value of the FCEDIT
variable is used, and the value of EDITOR if FCEDIT is not set.
If neither variable is set, vi is used. When editing is com-
plete, the edited commands are echoed and executed.
In the second form, command is re-executed after each instance
of pat is replaced by rep. A useful alias to use with this is
‘‘r="fc -s"’’, so that typing ‘‘r cc’’ runs the last command
beginning with ‘‘cc’’ and typing ‘‘r’’ re-executes the last com-
mand.
If the first form is used, the return value is 0 unless an
invalid option is encountered or first or last specify history
lines out of range. If the -e option is supplied, the return
value is the value of the last command executed or failure if an
error occurs with the temporary file of commands. If the second
form is used, the return status is that of the command re-exe-
cuted, unless cmd does not specify a valid history line, in
which case fc returns failure.
fg [jobspec]
Resume jobspec in the foreground, and make it the current job.
If jobspec is not present, the shell’s notion of the current job
is used. The return value is that of the command placed into
the foreground, or failure if run when job control is disabled
or, when run with job control enabled, if jobspec does not spec-
ify a valid job or jobspec specifies a job that was started
without job control.
getopts optstring name [args]
getopts is used by shell procedures to parse positional parame-
ters. optstring contains the option characters to be recog-
nized; if a character is followed by a colon, the option is
expected to have an argument, which should be separated from it
by white space. The colon and question mark characters may not
be used as option characters. Each time it is invoked, getopts
places the next option in the shell variable name, initializing
name if it does not exist, and the index of the next argument to
be processed into the variable OPTIND. OPTIND is initialized to
1 each time the shell or a shell script is invoked. When an
option requires an argument, getopts places that argument into
the variable OPTARG. The shell does not reset OPTIND automati-
cally; it must be manually reset between multiple calls to
getopts within the same shell invocation if a new set of parame-
ters is to be used.
When the end of options is encountered, getopts exits with a
return value greater than zero. OPTIND is set to the index of
the first non-option argument, and name is set to ?.
getopts normally parses the positional parameters, but if more
arguments are given in args, getopts parses those instead.
getopts can report errors in two ways. If the first character
of optstring is a colon, silent error reporting is used. In
normal operation diagnostic messages are printed when invalid
options or missing option arguments are encountered. If the
variable OPTERR is set to 0, no error messages will be dis-
played, even if the first character of optstring is not a colon.
If an invalid option is seen, getopts places ? into name and, if
not silent, prints an error message and unsets OPTARG. If
getopts is silent, the option character found is placed in
OPTARG and no diagnostic message is printed.
If a required argument is not found, and getopts is not silent,
a question mark (?) is placed in name, OPTARG is unset, and a
diagnostic message is printed. If getopts is silent, then a
colon (:) is placed in name and OPTARG is set to the option
character found.
getopts returns true if an option, specified or unspecified, is
found. It returns false if the end of options is encountered or
an error occurs.
hash [-lr] [-p filename] [-dt] [name]
For each name, the full file name of the command is determined
by searching the directories in $PATH and remembered. If the -p
option is supplied, no path search is performed, and filename is
used as the full file name of the command. The -r option causes
the shell to forget all remembered locations. The -d option
causes the shell to forget the remembered location of each name.
If the -t option is supplied, the full pathname to which each
name corresponds is printed. If multiple name arguments are
supplied with -t, the name is printed before the hashed full
pathname. The -l option causes output to be displayed in a for-
mat that may be reused as input. If no arguments are given, or
if only -l is supplied, information about remembered commands is
printed. The return status is true unless a name is not found
or an invalid option is supplied.
help [-s] [pattern]
Display helpful information about builtin commands. If pattern
is specified, help gives detailed help on all commands matching
pattern; otherwise help for all the builtins and shell control
structures is printed. The -s option restricts the information
displayed to a short usage synopsis. The return status is 0
unless no command matches pattern.
history [n]
history -c
history -d offset
history -anrw [filename]
history -p arg [arg ...]
history -s arg [arg ...]
With no options, display the command history list with line num-
bers. Lines listed with a * have been modified. An argument of
n lists only the last n lines. If the shell variable HISTTIME-
FORMAT is set and not null, it is used as a format string for
strftime(3) to display the time stamp associated with each dis-
played history entry. No intervening blank is printed between
the formatted time stamp and the history line. If filename is
supplied, it is used as the name of the history file; if not,
the value of HISTFILE is used. Options, if supplied, have the
following meanings:
-c Clear the history list by deleting all the entries.
-d offset
Delete the history entry at position offset.
-a Append the ‘‘new’’ history lines (history lines entered
since the beginning of the current bash session) to the
history file.
-n Read the history lines not already read from the history
file into the current history list. These are lines
appended to the history file since the beginning of the
current bash session.
-r Read the contents of the history file and use them as the
current history.
-w Write the current history to the history file, overwrit-
ing the history file’s contents.
-p Perform history substitution on the following args and
display the result on the standard output. Does not
store the results in the history list. Each arg must be
quoted to disable normal history expansion.
-s Store the args in the history list as a single entry.
The last command in the history list is removed before
the args are added.
If the HISTTIMEFORMAT is set, the time stamp information associ-
ated with each history entry is written to the history file.
The return value is 0 unless an invalid option is encountered,
an error occurs while reading or writing the history file, an
invalid offset is supplied as an argument to -d, or the history
expansion supplied as an argument to -p fails.
jobs [-lnprs] [ jobspec ... ]
jobs -x command [ args ... ]
The first form lists the active jobs. The options have the fol-
lowing meanings:
-l List process IDs in addition to the normal information.
-p List only the process ID of the job’s process group
leader.
-n Display information only about jobs that have changed
status since the user was last notified of their status.
-r Restrict output to running jobs.
-s Restrict output to stopped jobs.
If jobspec is given, output is restricted to information about
that job. The return status is 0 unless an invalid option is
encountered or an invalid jobspec is supplied.
If the -x option is supplied, jobs replaces any jobspec found in
command or args with the corresponding process group ID, and
executes command passing it args, returning its exit status.
kill [-s sigspec | -n signum | -sigspec] [pid | jobspec] ...
kill -l [sigspec | exit_status]
Send the signal named by sigspec or signum to the processes
named by pid or jobspec. sigspec is either a case-insensitive
signal name such as SIGKILL (with or without the SIG prefix) or
a signal number; signum is a signal number. If sigspec is not
present, then SIGTERM is assumed. An argument of -l lists the
signal names. If any arguments are supplied when -l is given,
the names of the signals corresponding to the arguments are
listed, and the return status is 0. The exit_status argument to
-l is a number specifying either a signal number or the exit
status of a process terminated by a signal. kill returns true
if at least one signal was successfully sent, or false if an
error occurs or an invalid option is encountered.
let arg [arg ...]
Each arg is an arithmetic expression to be evaluated (see ARITH-
METIC EVALUATION). If the last arg evaluates to 0, let returns
1; 0 is returned otherwise.
local [option] [name[=value] ...]
For each argument, a local variable named name is created, and
assigned value. The option can be any of the options accepted
by declare. When local is used within a function, it causes the
variable name to have a visible scope restricted to that func-
tion and its children. With no operands, local writes a list of
local variables to the standard output. It is an error to use
local when not within a function. The return status is 0 unless
local is used outside a function, an invalid name is supplied,
or name is a readonly variable.
logout Exit a login shell.
popd [-n] [+n] [-n]
Removes entries from the directory stack. With no arguments,
removes the top directory from the stack, and performs a cd to
the new top directory. Arguments, if supplied, have the follow-
ing meanings:
+n Removes the nth entry counting from the left of the list
shown by dirs, starting with zero. For example: ‘‘popd
+0’’ removes the first directory, ‘‘popd +1’’ the second.
-n Removes the nth entry counting from the right of the list
shown by dirs, starting with zero. For example: ‘‘popd
-0’’ removes the last directory, ‘‘popd -1’’ the next to
last.
-n Suppresses the normal change of directory when removing
directories from the stack, so that only the stack is
manipulated.
If the popd command is successful, a dirs is performed as well,
and the return status is 0. popd returns false if an invalid
option is encountered, the directory stack is empty, a non-exis-
tent directory stack entry is specified, or the directory change
fails.
printf [-v var] format [arguments]
Write the formatted arguments to the standard output under the
control of the format. The format is a character string which
contains three types of objects: plain characters, which are
simply copied to standard output, character escape sequences,
which are converted and copied to the standard output, and for-
mat specifications, each of which causes printing of the next
successive argument. In addition to the standard printf(1) for-
mats, %b causes printf to expand backslash escape sequences in
the corresponding argument (except that \c terminates output,
backslashes in \', \", and \? are not removed, and octal escapes
beginning with \0 may contain up to four digits), and %q causes
printf to output the corresponding argument in a format that can
be reused as shell input.
The -v option causes the output to be assigned to the variable
var rather than being printed to the standard output.
The format is reused as necessary to consume all of the argu-
ments. If the format requires more arguments than are supplied,
the extra format specifications behave as if a zero value or
null string, as appropriate, had been supplied. The return
value is zero on success, non-zero on failure.
pushd [-n] [dir]
pushd [-n] [+n] [-n]
Adds a directory to the top of the directory stack, or rotates
the stack, making the new top of the stack the current working
directory. With no arguments, exchanges the top two directories
and returns 0, unless the directory stack is empty. Arguments,
if supplied, have the following meanings:
+n Rotates the stack so that the nth directory (counting
from the left of the list shown by dirs, starting with
zero) is at the top.
-n Rotates the stack so that the nth directory (counting
from the right of the list shown by dirs, starting with
zero) is at the top.
-n Suppresses the normal change of directory when adding
directories to the stack, so that only the stack is
manipulated.
dir Adds dir to the directory stack at the top, making it the
new current working directory.
If the pushd command is successful, a dirs is performed as well.
If the first form is used, pushd returns 0 unless the cd to dir
fails. With the second form, pushd returns 0 unless the direc-
tory stack is empty, a non-existent directory stack element is
specified, or the directory change to the specified new current
directory fails.
pwd [-LP]
Print the absolute pathname of the current working directory.
The pathname printed contains no symbolic links if the -P option
is supplied or the -o physical option to the set builtin command
is enabled. If the -L option is used, the pathname printed may
contain symbolic links. The return status is 0 unless an error
occurs while reading the name of the current directory or an
invalid option is supplied.
read [-ers] [-u fd] [-t timeout] [-a aname] [-p prompt] [-n nchars] [-d
delim] [name ...]
One line is read from the standard input, or from the file
descriptor fd supplied as an argument to the -u option, and the
first word is assigned to the first name, the second word to the
second name, and so on, with leftover words and their interven-
ing separators assigned to the last name. If there are fewer
words read from the input stream than names, the remaining names
are assigned empty values. The characters in IFS are used to
split the line into words. The backslash character (\) may be
used to remove any special meaning for the next character read
and for line continuation. Options, if supplied, have the fol-
lowing meanings:
-a aname
The words are assigned to sequential indices of the array
variable aname, starting at 0. aname is unset before any
new values are assigned. Other name arguments are
ignored.
-d delim
The first character of delim is used to terminate the
input line, rather than newline.
-e If the standard input is coming from a terminal, readline
(see READLINE above) is used to obtain the line.
-n nchars
read returns after reading nchars characters rather than
waiting for a complete line of input.
-p prompt
Display prompt on standard error, without a trailing new-
line, before attempting to read any input. The prompt is
displayed only if input is coming from a terminal.
-r Backslash does not act as an escape character. The back-
slash is considered to be part of the line. In particu-
lar, a backslash-newline pair may not be used as a line
continuation.
-s Silent mode. If input is coming from a terminal, charac-
ters are not echoed.
-t timeout
Cause read to time out and return failure if a complete
line of input is not read within timeout seconds. This
option has no effect if read is not reading input from
the terminal or a pipe.
-u fd Read input from file descriptor fd.
If no names are supplied, the line read is assigned to the vari-
able REPLY. The return code is zero, unless end-of-file is
encountered, read times out, or an invalid file descriptor is
supplied as the argument to -u.
readonly [-apf] [name[=word] ...]
The given names are marked readonly; the values of these names
may not be changed by subsequent assignment. If the -f option
is supplied, the functions corresponding to the names are so
marked. The -a option restricts the variables to arrays. If no
name arguments are given, or if the -p option is supplied, a
list of all readonly names is printed. The -p option causes
output to be displayed in a format that may be reused as input.
If a variable name is followed by =word, the value of the vari-
able is set to word. The return status is 0 unless an invalid
option is encountered, one of the names is not a valid shell
variable name, or -f is supplied with a name that is not a func-
tion.
return [n]
Causes a function to exit with the return value specified by n.
If n is omitted, the return status is that of the last command
executed in the function body. If used outside a function, but
during execution of a script by the . (source) command, it
causes the shell to stop executing that script and return either
n or the exit status of the last command executed within the
script as the exit status of the script. If used outside a
function and not during execution of a script by ., the return
status is false. Any command associated with the RETURN trap is
executed before execution resumes after the function or script.
set [--abefhkmnptuvxBCHP] [-o option] [arg ...]
Without options, the name and value of each shell variable are
displayed in a format that can be reused as input for setting or
resetting the currently-set variables. Read-only variables can-
not be reset. In posix mode, only shell variables are listed.
The output is sorted according to the current locale. When
options are specified, they set or unset shell attributes. Any
arguments remaining after the options are processed are treated
as values for the positional parameters and are assigned, in
order, to $1, $2, ... $n. Options, if specified, have the fol-
lowing meanings:
-a Automatically mark variables and functions which are
modified or created for export to the environment of
subsequent commands.
-b Report the status of terminated background jobs immedi-
ately, rather than before the next primary prompt. This
is effective only when job control is enabled.
-e Exit immediately if a simple command (see SHELL GRAMMAR
above) exits with a non-zero status. The shell does not
exit if the command that fails is part of the command
list immediately following a while or until keyword,
part of the test in an if statement, part of a && or ││
list, or if the command’s return value is being inverted
via !. A trap on ERR, if set, is executed before the
shell exits.
-f Disable pathname expansion.
-h Remember the location of commands as they are looked up
for execution. This is enabled by default.
-k All arguments in the form of assignment statements are
placed in the environment for a command, not just those
that precede the command name.
-m Monitor mode. Job control is enabled. This option is
on by default for interactive shells on systems that
support it (see JOB CONTROL above). Background pro-
cesses run in a separate process group and a line con-
taining their exit status is printed upon their comple-
tion.
-n Read commands but do not execute them. This may be used
to check a shell script for syntax errors. This is
ignored by interactive shells.
-o option-name
The option-name can be one of the following:
allexport
Same as -a.
braceexpand
Same as -B.
emacs Use an emacs-style command line editing inter-
face. This is enabled by default when the shell
is interactive, unless the shell is started with
the --noediting option.
errtrace
Same as -E.
functrace
Same as -T.
errexit Same as -e.
hashall Same as -h.
histexpand
Same as -H.
history Enable command history, as described above under
HISTORY. This option is on by default in inter-
active shells.
ignoreeof
The effect is as if the shell command
‘‘IGNOREEOF=10’’ had been executed (see Shell
Variables above).
keyword Same as -k.
monitor Same as -m.
noclobber
Same as -C.
noexec Same as -n.
noglob Same as -f. nolog Currently ignored.
notify Same as -b.
nounset Same as -u.
onecmd Same as -t.
physical
Same as -P.
pipefail
If set, the return value of a pipeline is the
value of the last (rightmost) command to exit
with a non-zero status, or zero if all commands
in the pipeline exit successfully. This option
is disabled by default.
posix Change the behavior of bash where the default
operation differs from the POSIX standard to
match the standard (posix mode).
privileged
Same as -p.
verbose Same as -v.
vi Use a vi-style command line editing interface.
xtrace Same as -x.
If -o is supplied with no option-name, the values of the
current options are printed. If +o is supplied with no
option-name, a series of set commands to recreate the
current option settings is displayed on the standard
output.
-p Turn on privileged mode. In this mode, the $ENV and
$BASH_ENV files are not processed, shell functions are
not inherited from the environment, and the SHELLOPTS
variable, if it appears in the environment, is ignored.
If the shell is started with the effective user (group)
id not equal to the real user (group) id, and the -p
option is not supplied, these actions are taken and the
effective user id is set to the real user id. If the -p
option is supplied at startup, the effective user id is
not reset. Turning this option off causes the effective
user and group ids to be set to the real user and group
ids.
-t Exit after reading and executing one command.
-u Treat unset variables as an error when performing param-
eter expansion. If expansion is attempted on an unset
variable, the shell prints an error message, and, if not
interactive, exits with a non-zero status.
-v Print shell input lines as they are read.
-x After expanding each simple command, for command, case
command, select command, or arithmetic for command, dis-
play the expanded value of PS4, followed by the command
and its expanded arguments or associated word list.
-B The shell performs brace expansion (see Brace Expansion
above). This is on by default.
-C If set, bash does not overwrite an existing file with
the >, >&, and <> redirection operators. This may be
overridden when creating output files by using the redi-
rection operator >| instead of >.
-E If set, any trap on ERR is inherited by shell functions,
command substitutions, and commands executed in a sub-
shell environment. The ERR trap is normally not inher-
ited in such cases.
-H Enable ! style history substitution. This option is on
by default when the shell is interactive.
-P If set, the shell does not follow symbolic links when
executing commands such as cd that change the current
working directory. It uses the physical directory
structure instead. By default, bash follows the logical
chain of directories when performing commands which
change the current directory.
-T If set, any traps on DEBUG and RETURN are inherited by
shell functions, command substitutions, and commands
executed in a subshell environment. The DEBUG and
RETURN traps are normally not inherited in such cases.
-- If no arguments follow this option, then the positional
parameters are unset. Otherwise, the positional parame-
ters are set to the args, even if some of them begin
with a -.
- Signal the end of options, cause all remaining args to
be assigned to the positional parameters. The -x and -v
options are turned off. If there are no args, the posi-
tional parameters remain unchanged.
The options are off by default unless otherwise noted. Using +
rather than - causes these options to be turned off. The
options can also be specified as arguments to an invocation of
the shell. The current set of options may be found in $-. The
return status is always true unless an invalid option is encoun-
tered.
shift [n]
The positional parameters from n+1 ... are renamed to $1 ....
Parameters represented by the numbers $# down to $#-n+1 are
unset. n must be a non-negative number less than or equal to
$#. If n is 0, no parameters are changed. If n is not given,
it is assumed to be 1. If n is greater than $#, the positional
parameters are not changed. The return status is greater than
zero if n is greater than $# or less than zero; otherwise 0.
shopt [-pqsu] [-o] [optname ...]
Toggle the values of variables controlling optional shell behav-
ior. With no options, or with the -p option, a list of all set-
table options is displayed, with an indication of whether or not
each is set. The -p option causes output to be displayed in a
form that may be reused as input. Other options have the fol-
lowing meanings:
-s Enable (set) each optname.
-u Disable (unset) each optname.
-q Suppresses normal output (quiet mode); the return status
indicates whether the optname is set or unset. If multi-
ple optname arguments are given with -q, the return sta-
tus is zero if all optnames are enabled; non-zero other-
wise.
-o Restricts the values of optname to be those defined for
the -o option to the set builtin.
If either -s or -u is used with no optname arguments, the dis-
play is limited to those options which are set or unset, respec-
tively. Unless otherwise noted, the shopt options are disabled
(unset) by default.
The return status when listing options is zero if all optnames
are enabled, non-zero otherwise. When setting or unsetting
options, the return status is zero unless an optname is not a
valid shell option.
The list of shopt options is:
cdable_vars
If set, an argument to the cd builtin command that is
not a directory is assumed to be the name of a variable
whose value is the directory to change to.
cdspell If set, minor errors in the spelling of a directory com-
ponent in a cd command will be corrected. The errors
checked for are transposed characters, a missing charac-
ter, and one character too many. If a correction is
found, the corrected file name is printed, and the com-
mand proceeds. This option is only used by interactive
shells.
checkhash
If set, bash checks that a command found in the hash ta-
ble exists before trying to execute it. If a hashed
command no longer exists, a normal path search is per-
formed.
checkwinsize
If set, bash checks the window size after each command
and, if necessary, updates the values of LINES and
COLUMNS.
cmdhist If set, bash attempts to save all lines of a multiple-
line command in the same history entry. This allows
easy re-editing of multi-line commands.
dotglob If set, bash includes filenames beginning with a ‘.’ in
the results of pathname expansion.
execfail
If set, a non-interactive shell will not exit if it can-
not execute the file specified as an argument to the
exec builtin command. An interactive shell does not
exit if exec fails.
expand_aliases
If set, aliases are expanded as described above under
ALIASES. This option is enabled by default for interac-
tive shells.
extdebug
If set, behavior intended for use by debuggers is
enabled:
1. The -F option to the declare builtin displays the
source file name and line number corresponding to
each function name supplied as an argument.
2. If the command run by the DEBUG trap returns a
non-zero value, the next command is skipped and
not executed.
3. If the command run by the DEBUG trap returns a
value of 2, and the shell is executing in a sub-
routine (a shell function or a shell script exe-
cuted by the . or source builtins), a call to
return is simulated.
4. BASH_ARGC and BASH_ARGV are updated as described
in their descriptions above.
5. Function tracing is enabled: command substitu-
tion, shell functions, and subshells invoked with
( command ) inherit the DEBUG and RETURN traps.
6. Error tracing is enabled: command substitution,
shell functions, and subshells invoked with (
command ) inherit the ERROR trap.
extglob If set, the extended pattern matching features described
above under Pathname Expansion are enabled.
extquote
If set, $'string' and $"string" quoting is performed
within ${parameter} expansions enclosed in double
quotes. This option is enabled by default.
failglob
If set, patterns which fail to match filenames during
pathname expansion result in an expansion error.
force_fignore
If set, the suffixes specified by the FIGNORE shell
variable cause words to be ignored when performing word
completion even if the ignored words are the only possi-
ble completions. See SHELL VARIABLES above for a
description of FIGNORE. This option is enabled by
default.
gnu_errfmt
If set, shell error messages are written in the standard
GNU error message format.
histappend
If set, the history list is appended to the file named
by the value of the HISTFILE variable when the shell
exits, rather than overwriting the file.
histreedit
If set, and readline is being used, a user is given the
opportunity to re-edit a failed history substitution.
histverify
If set, and readline is being used, the results of his-
tory substitution are not immediately passed to the
shell parser. Instead, the resulting line is loaded
into the readline editing buffer, allowing further modi-
fication.
hostcomplete
If set, and readline is being used, bash will attempt to
perform hostname completion when a word containing a @
is being completed (see Completing under READLINE
above). This is enabled by default.
huponexit
If set, bash will send SIGHUP to all jobs when an inter-
active login shell exits.
interactive_comments
If set, allow a word beginning with # to cause that word
and all remaining characters on that line to be ignored
in an interactive shell (see COMMENTS above). This
option is enabled by default.
lithist If set, and the cmdhist option is enabled, multi-line
commands are saved to the history with embedded newlines
rather than using semicolon separators where possible.
login_shell
The shell sets this option if it is started as a login
shell (see INVOCATION above). The value may not be
changed.
mailwarn
If set, and a file that bash is checking for mail has
been accessed since the last time it was checked, the
message ‘‘The mail in mailfile has been read’’ is dis-
played.
no_empty_cmd_completion
If set, and readline is being used, bash will not
attempt to search the PATH for possible completions when
completion is attempted on an empty line.
nocaseglob
If set, bash matches filenames in a case-insensitive
fashion when performing pathname expansion (see Pathname
Expansion above).
nocasematch
If set, bash matches patterns in a case-insensitive
fashion when performing matching while executing case or
[[ conditional commands.
nullglob
If set, bash allows patterns which match no files (see
Pathname Expansion above) to expand to a null string,
rather than themselves.
progcomp
If set, the programmable completion facilities (see Pro-
grammable Completion above) are enabled. This option is
enabled by default.
promptvars
If set, prompt strings undergo parameter expansion, com-
mand substitution, arithmetic expansion, and quote
removal after being expanded as described in PROMPTING
above. This option is enabled by default.
restricted_shell
The shell sets this option if it is started in
restricted mode (see RESTRICTED SHELL below). The value
may not be changed. This is not reset when the startup
files are executed, allowing the startup files to dis-
cover whether or not a shell is restricted.
shift_verbose
If set, the shift builtin prints an error message when
the shift count exceeds the number of positional parame-
ters.
sourcepath
If set, the source (.) builtin uses the value of PATH to
find the directory containing the file supplied as an
argument. This option is enabled by default.
xpg_echo
If set, the echo builtin expands backslash-escape
sequences by default.
suspend [-f]
Suspend the execution of this shell until it receives a SIGCONT
signal. When the suspended shell is a background process, it
can be restarted by the fg command. For more information, read
the JOB CONTROL section. The suspend command can not suspend the
login shell. However, when -f option is specified, suspend com-
mand can suspend even login shell. The return status is 0
unless the shell is a login shell and -f is not supplied, or if
job control is not enabled.
test expr
[ expr ]
Return a status of 0 or 1 depending on the evaluation of the
conditional expression expr. Each operator and operand must be
a separate argument. Expressions are composed of the primaries
described above under CONDITIONAL EXPRESSIONS. test does not
accept any options, nor does it accept and ignore an argument of
-- as signifying the end of options.
Expressions may be combined using the following operators,
listed in decreasing order of precedence.
! expr True if expr is false.
( expr )
Returns the value of expr. This may be used to override
the normal precedence of operators.
expr1 -a expr2
True if both expr1 and expr2 are true.
expr1 -o expr2
True if either expr1 or expr2 is true.
test and [ evaluate conditional expressions using a set of rules
based on the number of arguments.
0 arguments
The expression is false.
1 argument
The expression is true if and only if the argument is not
null.
2 arguments
If the first argument is !, the expression is true if and
only if the second argument is null. If the first argu-
ment is one of the unary conditional operators listed
above under CONDITIONAL EXPRESSIONS, the expression is
true if the unary test is true. If the first argument is
not a valid unary conditional operator, the expression is
false.
3 arguments
If the second argument is one of the binary conditional
operators listed above under CONDITIONAL EXPRESSIONS, the
result of the expression is the result of the binary test
using the first and third arguments as operands. If the
first argument is !, the value is the negation of the
two-argument test using the second and third arguments.
If the first argument is exactly ( and the third argument
is exactly ), the result is the one-argument test of the
second argument. Otherwise, the expression is false.
The -a and -o operators are considered binary operators
in this case.
4 arguments
If the first argument is !, the result is the negation of
the three-argument expression composed of the remaining
arguments. Otherwise, the expression is parsed and eval-
uated according to precedence using the rules listed
above.
5 or more arguments
The expression is parsed and evaluated according to
precedence using the rules listed above.
times Print the accumulated user and system times for the shell and
for processes run from the shell. The return status is 0.
trap [-lp] [[arg] sigspec ...]
The command arg is to be read and executed when the shell
receives signal(s) sigspec. If arg is absent (and there is a
single sigspec) or -, each specified signal is reset to its
original disposition (the value it had upon entrance to the
shell). If arg is the null string the signal specified by each
sigspec is ignored by the shell and by the commands it invokes.
If arg is not present and -p has been supplied, then the trap
commands associated with each sigspec are displayed. If no
arguments are supplied or if only -p is given, trap prints the
list of commands associated with each signal. The -l option
causes the shell to print a list of signal names and their cor-
responding numbers. Each sigspec is either a signal name
defined in <signal.h>, or a signal number. Signal names are
case insensitive and the SIG prefix is optional. If a sigspec
is EXIT (0) the command arg is executed on exit from the shell.
If a sigspec is DEBUG, the command arg is executed before every
simple command, for command, case command, select command, every
arithmetic for command, and before the first command executes in
a shell function (see SHELL GRAMMAR above). Refer to the
description of the extdebug option to the shopt builtin for
details of its effect on the DEBUG trap. If a sigspec is ERR,
the command arg is executed whenever a simple command has a
non-zero exit status, subject to the following conditions. The
ERR trap is not executed if the failed command is part of the
command list immediately following a while or until keyword,
part of the test in an if statement, part of a && or ││ list, or
if the command’s return value is being inverted via !. These
are the same conditions obeyed by the errexit option. If a
sigspec is RETURN, the command arg is executed each time a shell
function or a script executed with the . or source builtins fin-
ishes executing. Signals ignored upon entry to the shell cannot
be trapped, reset or listed. Trapped signals that are not being
ignored are reset to their original values in a child process
when it is created. The return status is false if any sigspec
is invalid; otherwise trap returns true.
type [-aftpP] name [name ...]
With no options, indicate how each name would be interpreted if
used as a command name. If the -t option is used, type prints a
string which is one of alias, keyword, function, builtin, or
file if name is an alias, shell reserved word, function,
builtin, or disk file, respectively. If the name is not found,
then nothing is printed, and an exit status of false is
returned. If the -p option is used, type either returns the
name of the disk file that would be executed if name were speci-
fied as a command name, or nothing if ‘‘type -t name’’ would not
return file. The -P option forces a PATH search for each name,
even if ‘‘type -t name’’ would not return file. If a command is
hashed, -p and -P print the hashed value, not necessarily the
file that appears first in PATH. If the -a option is used, type
prints all of the places that contain an executable named name.
This includes aliases and functions, if and only if the -p
option is not also used. The table of hashed commands is not
consulted when using -a. The -f option suppresses shell func-
tion lookup, as with the command builtin. type returns true if
any of the arguments are found, false if none are found.
ulimit [-SHacdefilmnpqrstuvx [limit]]
Provides control over the resources available to the shell and
to processes started by it, on systems that allow such control.
The -H and -S options specify that the hard or soft limit is set
for the given resource. A hard limit cannot be increased once
it is set; a soft limit may be increased up to the value of the
hard limit. If neither -H nor -S is specified, both the soft
and hard limits are set. The value of limit can be a number in
the unit specified for the resource or one of the special values
hard, soft, or unlimited, which stand for the current hard
limit, the current soft limit, and no limit, respectively. If
limit is omitted, the current value of the soft limit of the
resource is printed, unless the -H option is given. When more
than one resource is specified, the limit name and unit are
printed before the value. Other options are interpreted as fol-
lows:
-a All current limits are reported
-c The maximum size of core files created
-d The maximum size of a process’s data segment
-e The maximum scheduling priority ("nice")
-f The maximum size of files written by the shell and its
children
-i The maximum number of pending signals
-l The maximum size that may be locked into memory
-m The maximum resident set size (has no effect on Linux)
-n The maximum number of open file descriptors (most systems
do not allow this value to be set)
-p The pipe size in 512-byte blocks (this may not be set)
-q The maximum number of bytes in POSIX message queues
-r The maximum real-time scheduling priority
-s The maximum stack size
-t The maximum amount of cpu time in seconds
-u The maximum number of processes available to a single
user
-v The maximum amount of virtual memory available to the
shell
-x The maximum number of file locks
If limit is given, it is the new value of the specified resource
(the -a option is display only). If no option is given, then -f
is assumed. Values are in 1024-byte increments, except for -t,
which is in seconds, -p, which is in units of 512-byte blocks,
and -n and -u, which are unscaled values. The return status is
0 unless an invalid option or argument is supplied, or an error
occurs while setting a new limit.
umask [-p] [-S] [mode]
The user file-creation mask is set to mode. If mode begins with
a digit, it is interpreted as an octal number; otherwise it is
interpreted as a symbolic mode mask similar to that accepted by
chmod(1). If mode is omitted, the current value of the mask is
printed. The -S option causes the mask to be printed in sym-
bolic form; the default output is an octal number. If the -p
option is supplied, and mode is omitted, the output is in a form
that may be reused as input. The return status is 0 if the mode
was successfully changed or if no mode argument was supplied,
and false otherwise.
unalias [-a] [name ...]
Remove each name from the list of defined aliases. If -a is
supplied, all alias definitions are removed. The return value
is true unless a supplied name is not a defined alias.
unset [-fv] [name ...]
For each name, remove the corresponding variable or function.
If no options are supplied, or the -v option is given, each name
refers to a shell variable. Read-only variables may not be
unset. If -f is specified, each name refers to a shell func-
tion, and the function definition is removed. Each unset vari-
able or function is removed from the environment passed to sub-
sequent commands. If any of RANDOM, SECONDS, LINENO, HISTCMD,
FUNCNAME, GROUPS, or DIRSTACK are unset, they lose their special
properties, even if they are subsequently reset. The exit sta-
tus is true unless a name is readonly.
wait [n ...]
Wait for each specified process and return its termination sta-
tus. Each n may be a process ID or a job specification; if a
job spec is given, all processes in that job’s pipeline are
waited for. If n is not given, all currently active child pro-
cesses are waited for, and the return status is zero. If n
specifies a non-existent process or job, the return status is
127. Otherwise, the return status is the exit status of the
last process or job waited for.
RESTRICTED SHELL
If bash is started with the name rbash, or the -r option is supplied at
invocation, the shell becomes restricted. A restricted shell is used
to set up an environment more controlled than the standard shell. It
behaves identically to bash with the exception that the following are
disallowed or not performed:
· changing directories with cd
· setting or unsetting the values of SHELL, PATH, ENV, or BASH_ENV
· specifying command names containing /
· specifying a file name containing a / as an argument to the .
builtin command
· Specifying a filename containing a slash as an argument to the
-p option to the hash builtin command
· importing function definitions from the shell environment at
startup
· parsing the value of SHELLOPTS from the shell environment at
startup
· redirecting output using the >, >|, <>, >&, &>, and >> redirec-
tion operators
· using the exec builtin command to replace the shell with another
command
· adding or deleting builtin commands with the -f and -d options
to the enable builtin command
· Using the enable builtin command to enable disabled shell
builtins
· specifying the -p option to the command builtin command
· turning off restricted mode with set +r or set +o restricted.
These restrictions are enforced after any startup files are read.
When a command that is found to be a shell script is executed (see COM-
MAND EXECUTION above), rbash turns off any restrictions in the shell
spawned to execute the script.
SEE ALSO
Bash Reference Manual, Brian Fox and Chet Ramey
The Gnu Readline Library, Brian Fox and Chet Ramey
The Gnu History Library, Brian Fox and Chet Ramey
Portable Operating System Interface (POSIX) Part 2: Shell and Utili-
ties, IEEE
sh(1), ksh(1), csh(1)
emacs(1), vi(1)
readline(3)
FILES
/bin/bash
The bash executable
/etc/profile
The systemwide initialization file, executed for login shells
/etc/bash.bash_logout
The systemwide login shell cleanup file, executed when a login
shell exits
~/.bash_profile
The personal initialization file, executed for login shells
~/.bashrc
The individual per-interactive-shell startup file
~/.bash_logout
The individual login shell cleanup file, executed when a login
shell exits
~/.inputrc
Individual readline initialization file
AUTHORS
Brian Fox, Free Software Foundation
[email protected]
Chet Ramey, Case Western Reserve University
[email protected]
BUG REPORTS
If you find a bug in bash, you should report it. But first, you should
make sure that it really is a bug, and that it appears in the latest
version of bash. The latest version is always available from
ftp://ftp.gnu.org/pub/bash/.
Once you have determined that a bug actually exists, use the bashbug
command to submit a bug report. If you have a fix, you are encouraged
to mail that as well! Suggestions and ‘philosophical’ bug reports may
be mailed to [email protected] or posted to the Usenet newsgroup
gnu.bash.bug.
ALL bug reports should include:
The version number of bash
The hardware and operating system
The compiler used to compile
A description of the bug behaviour
A short script or ‘recipe’ which exercises the bug
bashbug inserts the first three items automatically into the template
it provides for filing a bug report.
Comments and bug reports concerning this manual page should be directed
to [email protected].
BUGS
It’s too big and too slow.
There are some subtle differences between bash and traditional versions
of sh, mostly because of the POSIX specification.
Aliases are confusing in some uses.
Shell builtin commands and functions are not stoppable/restartable.
Compound commands and command sequences of the form ‘a ; b ; c’ are not
handled gracefully when process suspension is attempted. When a pro-
cess is stopped, the shell immediately executes the next command in the
sequence. It suffices to place the sequence of commands between paren-
theses to force it into a subshell, which may be stopped as a unit.
Commands inside of $(...) command substitution are not parsed until
substitution is attempted. This will delay error reporting until some
time after the command is entered. For example, unmatched parentheses,
even inside shell comments, will result in error messages while the
construct is being read.
Array variables may not (yet) be exported.
When breaking out of multiple loops, if the outermost loop consists of
more than one command, the exit status of break and continue is lost.
Documentation / Reference
- The man page
man bash